Environmental Psychology
2nd Lecture
Introduction
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY studies the
relationship between environments and human behavior
as well as how they affect one another. These
environments include social settings, built environments,
learning environments and informational environments.
Why are some spaces comfortable and others
threatening? How can we enhance our environments to
reduce stress, create more efficiency, and minimize
accidents? These are a few questions that
environmental psychologists work with AS WELL AS
DESIGNERS.
Another definition of environmental
psychology
The study of human behaviour and wellbeing in relation to the sociophysical
environment (Stokols & Altman, 1987).
The branch of Psychology concerned with
providing a systematic account of the
relationship between a person and the
environment (Russell & Snodgrass, 1987).
Humans react both consciously and
unconsciously to the area in which they
live and work. Their environment, whether
it be natural or man made, has a profound
effect on:
feelings,
behaviors,
general health issues, and
productivity.
GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
The goal of the field is to solve problems
involving human-environmental
interactions and to create, manage,
protect, and restore environments that
promote proper behavior.
Researchers diagnose problem situations
and recommend solutions.
HOW DO ENVIRONMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS WORK?
 A great majority of research in Environmental
Psychology is done in the field rather than in the
lab.
 Environmental psychologists assess, analyze,
and advise on personal space and environments
in general.
 They usually work in teams with other
professionals such as urban and city planners,
architects, economists, engineers, and
designers, etc.
A Brief History
 Research in Environmental
Psychology started in 1950 with a
campaign to improve mental
hospitals. Architects in charge of
building these hospitals where
more concerned with the
structure rather than human
needs.
 They turned to psychologists for
information on cognition and
social and human behavior.
 This collaboration between
architects and psychologists
created a field called
Architectural Psychology.
 Over the years, problems expanded beyond
architectural situations to parks and landscapes,
thus creating Environmental Psychology.
 Researchers began discovering the mismatches
between humans and their environment.
 Psychologists began trying to solve these
problems through improved design. A field that
had started with investigating color and chair
arrangements in mental hospitals moved to
tracking visitors in national parks and studying
the stresses associated with urban commuting
(traffic).
Barker’s Ecological Theory
The first significant findings in
environmental psychology can be traced
back to researcher Roger Barker, who
founded his research station in Kansas in
1947, and ran it for several decades.
From detailed field observations he
developed the theory that social settings
influence behavior.
 In a store, people assume their
roles as customers; in school and
church, proper behavior is
somehow coded in the place.
 Barker spent his career
expanding on what he
called ecological
psychology, identifying
these behavior settings.
The "behavior setting"
remains a valid
principle which receives
serious attention.
Architecture
-
provides settings for certain activities (sports, education, etc.)
-
It reminds people of what certain activities are, (eating,
studying, etc.)
-
It signifies power, status, or privacy ( wealth, richness,
residential)
-
It expresses and supports beliefs (mosques, churches).
-
It communicates information (the time a building was built, the
climate, thickness of the walls, etc.)
-
It helps establish individual or group identity (Home vs.
classroom, studios)
-
And it encodes value systems (Different types of buildings in
different cultures)
Designers are liable of designing spaces
in respect to their prospective users. It is
their responsibility to enable users where
they are and how they can reach or use
the services provided.
Designers need to communicate some
messages, in order to be able to do this
they need to understand how people
perceive their surroundings.
Areas of Study
 Wayfinding
 Effects of Noise
 Population Density
 Effects of High Density on Humans
 Effects of Density on Social Behavior
 Effects of Crowding




Effects of Urban Life
Environmental Solutions to Urban Problems
Personal Space and Territorial Behavior
Residential Environments




Attachment to Place
Preferences
Satisfaction With the Home Environment
Neighborhood and Community Environments
 Institutional Environments





Classroom Settings
Hospital Settings
Museum Environments
Prison Design and Behavior
Designing for the Elderly
 Work Environments




Ambient Work Environments
Territoriality and Status
Human Factors
Open-Plan vs. Private Offices
When solving problems involving humanenvironment interactions, it is essential to:
have a model of human nature that predicts
the conditions under which humans will
behave in a decent and creative manner.
We can use theories in order make
assumptions on general human behaviour.
One of the most important functions
of a theory is:
to provide generalizations that give order
and meaning to specific observations
about person-environment relations.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in
psychology that Abraham Maslow proposed in
1943 ( A Theory of Human Motivation).
 Maslow studied exemplary people such as
Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, and
Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or
neurotic people, writing that:
"the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy
specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a
cripple philosophy."
 Maslow also studied the healthiest one percent
of the college student population.
Maslow has a theory of motivation based
on needs that people have. He arranges
them in order of importance; that is, he
believes you must fulfill the lower needs
before achieving a higher one. If you
achieve something near the top first,
happiness will not last; but if you climb up
the pyramid of needs, you will achieve
great satisfaction with life.
While Maslow's theory was regarded as an
improvement over previous theories of
personality and motivation, it had its
detractors. For example, some
researchers found little evidence for the
ranking of needs that Maslow described,
or even for the existence of a definite
hierarchy at all.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often
depicted as a pyramid consisting of five
levels:
 The four lower levels are Deficiency needs that are
grouped together as being associated with
Physiological needs, while the top level is termed as
Growth needs associated with Psychological needs.
 DEFICIENCY NEEDS
 GROWTH NEEDS
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
 Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these are met,
seeking to satisfy growth needs drives personal growth.
The higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus
when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied.
Deficiency
needs
needs
Growth
Deficiency needs
The first four layers of the pyramid are
what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or
"D-needs": the individual does not feel
anything if they are met, but feels anxious
if they are not met.
The deficiency needs are:
Physiological,
Safety needs,
Love/Belonging, and
Esteem needs.
Physiological needs
 These are the basic animal needs for such
things as air, water, food, warmth, sex, sleep
and other body needs.
 When these are not satisfied we may feel
sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These
feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon as
possible to establish homeostasis. Once they
are alleviated, we may think about other things.
 For example if a person is hungry or thirsty or
his body is chemically unbalanced, all of his
energies turn toward remedying these
deficiencies, and other needs remain inactive.
The physiological needs of the [organism] (those
enabling [homeostasis]) take first precedence.
 The physiological needs consist mainly of:
Eating
Drinking
Sleeping
Excretion
Sex
Warmth
 If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's
physiological needs take the highest priority.
Physiological needs can control thoughts and
behaviors, and can cause people to feel
sickness, pain, and discomfort.
Safety needs
 With his physical needs relatively satisfied, the
individual's safety needs take over and dominate his
behavior.
 Safety needs are:
 man's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which
injustice and inconsistency are under control,
 the familiar frequent, and
 the unfamiliar rare.
 In the world of work, these safety needs manifest
themselves in such things as a preference for job
security, grievance procedures for protecting the
individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts,
insurance policies, and the like.
Safety needs include:
Personal security from crime
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidents/illness and
the adverse impacts
Love/Belonging/Social needs
After physiological and safety needs are
fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is
social. This psychological aspect of
Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionallybased relationships in general, such as:
friendship
sexual intimacy
having a supportive and communicative
family
 Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and
acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group
(such as clubs, office culture, religious groups,
professional organizations, sports teams, gangs) or
small social connections (family members, intimate
partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants).
 They need to love and be loved (sexually and nonsexually) by others. In the absence of these elements,
many people become susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and depression.
 This need for belonging can sometimes overcome the
physiological and security needs, depending on the
strength of the peer pressure. e.g. an anorexic ignores
the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of
belonging.
Esteem needs
All humans have a need to be respected,
to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to
respect others. People need to engage
themselves to gain recognition and have
an activity or activities that give the person
a sense of contribution, to feel accepted
and self-valued, be it in a profession or a
hobby. Imbalances at this level can result
in low self-esteem, inferiority complexes.
 People with low self-esteem especially need respect
from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again
depends on others.
 However, confidence, competence and achievement
only need one person and everyone else is
inconsequential to one's own success.
 It may be noted, however, that many people with low
self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of
themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory
externally, but must first accept themselves internally.
Psychological imbalances such as depression can also
prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
Growth needs
Though the deficiency needs may be seen
as "basic", and can be met and
neutralized; self-actualization and
transcendence are "being" or "growth
needs" (also termed "B-needs"), i.e. they
are enduring motivations or drivers of
behavior.
Cognitive needs
Maslow believed that humans have the
need to increase their intelligence and
thereby chase knowledge.
Cognitive needs is the expression of the
natural human need to learn, explore,
discover and create to get a better
understanding of the world around them.
Aesthetic needs
Based on Maslow's beliefs, humans need
beautiful imagery or something new and
aesthetically pleasing to continue up
towards Self-Actualization.
Humans need to refresh themselves in the
presence and beauty of nature while
carefully absorbing and observing their
surroundings to extract the beauty that the
world has to offer.
Self-actualization
Self-actualization — a concept Maslow
attributed to Kurt Goldstein, one of his
mentors — is the instinctual need of
humans to make the most of their abilities
and to strive to be the best they can.
Maslow writes the following of selfactualizing people:
 They embrace the facts and realities of the world (including
themselves) rather than denying or avoiding them.
 They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions.
 They are creative.
 They are interested in solving problems; this often includes the
problems of others. Solving these problems is often a key focus in
their lives.
 They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate life.
 They have a system of morality that is fully internalized and
independent of external authority.
 They have discernment and are able to view all things in an
objective manner.
Other Theories and Approaches
 Stimulation Theories conceptualize the
environment as a source of sensory information.
The stimulation includes:
 Simple stimuli such as light, color, sound,
noise, heat and cold, and,
 Complex stimuli such as buildings, streets,
outdoor settings, and other people.
Stimulation varies in amount and
meaning.
Amount of stimulation includes
dimensions such as intensity, duration,
frequency, and number of sources.
Meaning of stimulation refers to each
person’s integration and interpretation of
the stimulus information.
Stimulation based theories
Adaptation-level Theory: Individuals
adapt to certain levels of stimulation in
certain contexts, no particular amount of
stimulation is good for everyone.
Arousel Theories: These are based on
the assumption that the form and content
of a broad range of our behavior and
experience are related to how
physiologically aroused we are.
Overload Theory: concentrates on the
effects of too much stimulation (noise,
heat, cold, crowding).
Restricted Environmental Stimulation:
Too little stimulation causes problems in
some circumstances, and has positive
effects in others such as easy cognitive
tasks.
 Barabasz, Antartika'da görevli ABD'li askerlerle yaptığı çalışmada, uyaranın sınırlı
olduğu, yalıtılmış ortamlarda yaşayanların daha kolay hipnotize
edilebildiklerini, telkine daha açık olduklarını, kolay yönlendirilebildiklerini
göstermiştir.5 Harrison, duyusal yoksunlukla, otistik düşünce gelişimi arasında ilişki
olup olmadığını araştırdığı çalışmasında, 36 deneği, belirli ölçüde duyusal olarak
yalıtmış ve bu deneklerde ego gücünün zayıfladığını, otistik düşünce
bozukluğu belirtilerinin geliştiğini gözlemiştir.6 Soutter, duruş, yürüyüş, davranış
ve iletişim bozukluğu gösteren, anne ve babası dışındakileri kol mesafesinden yakına
yaklaştırmayan 10 yaşındaki bir çocukla ilgili vaka analizinde, bu tablonun ilk
çocuklarını kaybettikleri için, söz konusu çocuklarını evden dışarı çıkarmayan,
infeksiyon korkusuyla kimseyle görüştürmeyen anne, babanın tutumları nedeniyle
geliştiğini vurgulamıştır. Bu vaka, 8 yıl süren tedaviden sonra yaşına uygun insan
ilişkileri kurabilir hale gelmiştir.7
Ruhbilim alanında yapılan araştırmalar, insanların ruh sağlıklarını koruyabilmeleri
için uyarana ihtiyaçları olduğunu gösteriyor. Psikolog Zubek, 1969 ve 1972'de
Kanada'da insanlar üzerinde yaptığı deneylerde, gönüllü denekleri, fiziksel olarak
rahat ama ses, ışık vb. uyaranların sınırlandığı izole ortamlarda saatlerce
tutmuştur. Dayanma süreleri farklı olmakla birlikte, deneklerin çoğunda sıkıntı,
huzursuzluk, kötülük göreceği korkuları, sanrılar (hezeyanlar), işitsel-görsel
varsanılar (halüsinasyonlar) ortaya çıkmıştır.8 Bir başka deyişle kişi, uyarandan
yoksun bırakıldığında, iç dünyasına ait uyaranları (hayaller, rüyalar, bilinçdışı
süreçler vb.) dış uyaranlardan yani gerçeklikten ayırt edememekte ve gerçeklik
duygusunu yitirebilmektedir. Her insan, kendinden haberdar olan, onu fark
eden, etkileşebileceği diğer insan veya insanlara ihtiyaç duyar. Çünkü ancak
onların bakışları, sesleri, dokunmaları ile benlik sınırları çizilir. Uzun süre
insansız kalmak ben ile ben olmayan arasındaki sınırı bulanıklaştırır, benlik
parçalanmasına yol açabilir. Bu parçalanmanın nasıl bir ruhsal acı verdiğinin en
çarpıcı kanıtı, tecrit hücrelerindeki bazı mahkumların, işkencecilerinin
bedenlerine vereceği acıları, hücrelerindeki, insansız, uyaransız kalmaya tercih
etmeleridir.
 Stress: is another important concept. When
environmental stimulation exceeds an individuals
adaptive resources, behavioral and health effects
occur.
 Stressors include: air pollution, hospitals, offices,
extreme temperatures, traffic, noise, etc.
 Acute stressors: negative, intense, short impacts,
 Ambient stressors: negative, chronic, global
conditions remaining in the background,
 Daily hassles: negative, nonurgent.
Control Theories:
 How much control we have over environmental
stimulation is very important. We have more
control at home, and less control outdoors such
as in traffic jams.
 Personal Control: accounts for the effects of
being able or unable to influence stimulation.
 Psychological reactance: is a result of lack of
control.
 Learned helplessness: is the conviction that
nothing can change or overcome an unpleasant
or painful situation.
In everyday social transactions, we
attempt to achieve personal control
through boundary regulation
mechanisms, such as personal space
and territoriality.
Behavior-Setting Theory
 This is a concept based on Barker’s ecological
psychology. It tends to explain person-environment
relations in terms of the settings, social features, such as
rules, customs, and typical activities, and its physical
features.
 Consistent, prescribed patterns of behavior called
programs are found in many places. When you enter a
certain space you are likely to see reccurrent activities,
regularly carried out by persons holding specific roles.
For example, every football game has two teams who
run, pass the ball and score, and a referee. Uniformity of
actions of certain roles is important.
Integral Theories:
 A theory that searchs for a model that captures the full
complexity of everyday person-environment relations.
 Interactionism: People & environment are seperate entities but
are in continous interaction.
 Transactionism: Person & env. are inclusive, one defines the
other.
 Organismic: Dynamic interplay of social and individual factors.
Person is affected by social env. And the society.
 The Operant Approach: Its goal is to modify the
behavior of individuals whose behavior is contributing to
some environmental problem. Problematic behaviors are
identified, appropriate positive reinforcements are
delivered when individuals engage in beneficial
behavior. For example recycling, littering, energy waste.
Environment-centered Approaches
These approaches focus on the state or
quality of the environment without ignoring
people. The approach may contrast
instrumental versus spiritual views of the
environment.
Should the environment be used to support
human goals such as productivity, or is it a
context in which human values are cultivated?
We receive information from the
environment all through our lives, this
affects our behaviors physically and
psychologically as the brain and the body
give reactions to the stimuli from the
environment. These processes are
concerned with perception, cognition, and
cognitive maps.
Some related concepts
 Perception: The gathering of information through our
senses such as seeing, hearing, touching, etc. in order
to understand the environment. It is how we make sense
of the stimuli around us. The visual field is the area
where objects are visually perceived, and it is limited
with our ability to perceive the visual characteristics of
the environment. We perceive motion, brightness, color
and form.
 The environment is filled with various objects that we
scan and glance at. This process takes only a few
seconds. Only a very small amount of written items can
be read in a glance. So, information should be grouped
and limited.
Cognition
It is the processing of the information
acquired by perception through storing,
organizing and recalling.
Spatial cognition is the way we acquire,
store, and recall information about
location, distances, and arrangements in
the physical environment.
Environmental Cognition
It is the awareness, impressions,
information, images, and beliefs that
people have about environments.
Cognitive Maps
The representation people have of the
surrounding environment is called an
image or cognitive map.
A cognitive map is the mental construct of
the environment seen from multiple
viewpoints. It integrates parts into a whole.
The way we construct cognitive maps
change individually.