KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS
THE PIANO
The Science of Sound, Chapter 14
The Physics of Musical Instruments, Chapters 11, 12, 17
The Science of String Instruments, Chapter 20
GRAND PIANO
PIANO
BARTOLOMEO CRISTOFORI (1709): “Gravicembolo col piano et forte”
GOTTFRIED SILBERMANN
JOHANNES ZUMPE
ANDREAS STEIN – Invented escape mechanism
PIERRE ERARD – Invented agraffe, double repetition action
JOHN HAWKINS, ROBERT WORNUM – Upright pianoforte
243 Strings (5cm to 2m in length) on typical concert grand
8 Single strings (wrapped)
5 Pairs of strings (wrapped)
7 sets of 3 strings (wrapped)
68 sets of 3 strings (unwrapped)
Strings tensions may exceed 1000 N (215 lb.)
(Total force: over 20 tons)
SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM OF PIANO
WHEN A KEY IS DEPRESSED, THE DAMPER IS RAISED
AND THE HAMMER IS “THROWN” AGAINST THE STRING
VIBRATIONS OF THE STRING ARE TRANSMITTED TO
THE SOUNDBOARD BY THE BRIDGE
GRAND PIANO ACTION
UPRIGHT PIANO ACTIONS
FULL SIZE
CONSOLE
SPINET
(a) SINGLY-WOUND STRING AND (b) DOUBLY-WOUND STRING
DEVIATION FROM EQUAL TEMPERAMENT
IN A SMALL PIANO
HAMMER
VOICING
SOUND SPECTRA FOR C4 ON GRAND PIANO
VIBRATIONAL
MODES OF AN
UPRIGHT PIANO
SOUNDBOARD
VIBRATIONAL
FREQUENCIES OF
PIANO SOUNDBOARD
COMPARED TO PLATE
WITH SUPPORTED
AND FIXED EDGES
MODE SHAPES
GRAND PIANO
SOUNDBOARDS
DECAY TIMES FOR A SINGLE D4# STRING
COMPOUND DECAY IN A TRICORD
WHEN A HAMMER STRIKES A TRICORD (3 unison strings), IT
SETS ALL THREE STRINGS INTO VIBRATION WITH THE SAME
PHASE. BECAUSE OF SMALL DIFFERENCES IN FREQUENCY,
HOWEVER, THEY SOON GET OUT OF PHASE, AND THE
RESULTANT FORCE ON THE BRIDGE IS DIMINISHED.
INITIALLY THE DECAY IS RAPID AND THE SOUND IS LOUD;
THEN THE DECAY RATE DIMINISHES, AND THE SOFTER SOUND
CONTINUES FOR AN EXTENDED TIME.
IN THIS WAY THE PIANO PLAYS BOTH LOUD AND SOFT
(“FORTE-PIANO”)
DECAY TIMES FOR
DIFFERENT
PARTIALS IN FIVE
NOTES ON A
GRAND PIANO
(Meyer 1978)
RADIATION PATTERN
(VERTICAL PLANE)
HARPSICHORDS
AND
CLAVICHORDS
SCIENCE OF SOUND, Chapter 14
PHYSICS OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, Chapter 11
“ANALYSIS OF THE DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE
OF HARPSICHORDS” (N.H.FLETCHER, ACUSTICA
37, 139 (1977).
MODERN FLEMISH
HARPSICHORD BY
AUSTRALIAN CAREY BEEBE
BASED ON CLASSICAL
INSTRUMENTS BY THE 17TH
CENTURY MAKER ANDREAS
RUCKERS.
THE KEYBOARD COMPASS
HAS BEEN EXTENDED DOWN
TO G3 IN THE BASS AND UP
TO D6 IN THE TREBLE
THE SMALL PROTRUSIONS
ON THE RIGHT SIDE (CHEEK)
ENABLE THE PLAYER TO
ENGAGE EITHER OF THE TWO
SETS OF JACKS BY SLIDING
THE REGISTER ON OR OFF
HARPSICHORD ACTION (SIMPLIFIED)
HARPSICHORD ACTION
ACTION OF A FLEMISH HARPSICHORD. IN THIS INSTRUMENT
THERE ARE TWO CHOIRS OF STRINGS, THE SHORTER 4-FT
CHOIR AND AN 8-FT CHOIR. THE LEATHER PADS OF THE
BUFF STOP ARE VISIBLE BEHIND THE 4-FT TUNING PINS
CLAVICHORD
THE CLAVICHORD, LIKE THE
PIANO, DEPENDS ON STRUCK
STRINGS FOR ITS SOUND.
A CLAVICHORD IS A
PORTABLE INSTRUMENT
WITH A SOFT DELICATE
SOUND
CLAVICHORD ACTION:
A TANGENT STRIKES THE
STRONG (OR PAIR OF STRINGS)
AND CAUSES THE PORTION
BETWEEN THE TANGENT AND
THE BRIDGE TO VIBRATE
CLAVICHORD SOUND
UNLIKE THE HARPSICHORD, THE CLAVICHORD PLAYER HAS
DIRECT DYNAMIC CONTROL OVER THE SOUND BY VARYING THE
SPEED AT WHICH THE TANGENT STRIKES THE STRING AND THE
FORCE WHILE THE SOUND IS SUSTAINED. THE FORCE ON THE
BRIDGE HAS A SPECTRUM THAT FALLS SMOOTHLY AT ABOUT 8
dB/OCTAVE. BECAUSE THE DISPLACEMENT OF THE STRING BY
THE TANGENT INCREASES ITS TENSION BY A SMALL AMOUNT, THE
PLAYER CAN CREATE A PITCH VIBRATO BY VARYING THE FINGER
FORCE ON THE KEY.
THE FACT THAT EACH NOTE IS PRODUCED BY TWO STRINGS
PRODUCES AN EFFECT SIMILAR TO THAT FOUND IN PIANOS.
IMMEDIATELY AFTER STRIKING, THE STRINGS VIBRATE IN PHASE,
AND VIBRATIONAL ENERGY IS TRANSFERRED RAPIDLY TO THE
BRIDGE AND SOUNDBOARD, LEADING TO A RAPID INITIAL SOUND
DECAY WITH AN “AFTERSOUND” AFTER THE TWO STRINGS GET
OUT OF PHASE. THIS LEADS TO AN INITIAL CLARITY OF SOUND
COMBINED WITH A MELLOWNESS.
HARPS
CONCERT HARP
MODERN CONCERT HARP
THE MODERN CONCERT HARP HAS 46 or 47 STRINGS
RUNNING from C1 or D1 to G7.
THE STRINGS RUN FROM THE CENTER OF THE
SOUNDBOARD TO THE LEFT SIDE OF THE NECK. AT
THE TOP THEY ARE WRAPPED AROUND A TUNING PEG,
USED FOR TUNING, AND A BRIDGE PIN.
BENEATH THE BRIDGE PIN ARE THE TUNING DISCS
WHICH RAISE THE PITCH ONE OR TWO SEMITONES.
THE STRINGS ARE TUNED A SEMITONE FLAT; THE
FIRST DISC RAISES THE STRING TO NATURAL; THE
SECOND TO SHARP. THE SHARPING MECHANISMS ARE
CONTROLLED FROM 7 PEDALS. THE MECHANISM IS
QUITE COMPLEX AND RUNS UP THE FOREPILLAR OR
POST INTO THE NECK.
PLAYING SHARPS AND FLATS
DEPRESSING ONE OF THE TUNING
PEDALS INCREASES THE TENSION
ON ALL THE STRINGS WITH THAT
NOTE NAME BY ONE (FOR
NATURALS) OR TWO (FOR SHARPS)
UNITS
PIPE ORGAN
THE PIPE ORGAN HAS BEEN
CALLED THE “KING OF MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS.”
NO TWO PIPE ORGANS IN THE
WORLD ARE EXACTLY ALIKE
A LARGE VARIETY OF PIPES ARE ARRANGED INTO DIVISIONS
EACH DIVISION IS CONTROLLED BY A SEPARATE KEYBOARD
OR MANUAL, INCLUDING THE PEDALBOARD PLAYED WITH THE
FEET
SWELL ORGAN: USUALLY ENCLOSED BEHIND SHUTTERS
GREAT ORGAN: PRINCIPAL DIVISION WITH MANY STOPS
POSITIVE ORGAN: INCLUDES SOLO STOPS
PEDAL ORGAN: INCLUDES THE LOWEST BASS STOPS
ORGAN WINDCHESTS HAVE VALVES THAT CAN BE OPENED TO
ADMIT AIR INTO THE PIPES
THE OLDEST TYPE IS THE TRACKER OR MECHANICAL ACTION:
KEYBOARDS ARE CONNECTED DIRECTLYTO THE WINDCHESTS
DIRECT ELECTRIC: ELECTROMAGNETS OPEN VALVES
ELECTROPNEUMATIC: ELECTROMAGNETS EXHAUST AIR FROM
THE BELLOWS, WHICH OPEN THE VALVES INTO THE PIPES
FULL PNEUMATIC: (RARE THESE DAYS) KEY CONTROLS AIR VALVE
TRACKER
DIRECT ELECTRIC
ELECTROPNEUMATIC
FLUE PIPE: A JET OF AIR STRIKES A
SHARP EDGE AND ALTERNATELY FLOWS
INTO AND OUT FROM THE PIPE (AS IN A
RECORDER) AS DRIVEN BY POSITIVE
FEEDBACK FROM THE PIPE
SCHLIEREN PHOTOGRAPHS SHOWING AIRFLOW WHEN
A JET STRIKES A SHARP EDGE (A. Hirschberg)
ORGAN PIPES ARE ORGANIZED INTO RANKS OF SIMILAR PIPES
ONE RANK WILL INCLUDE ONE PIPE FOR EACH NOTE
(EXCEPT FOR MIXTURE STOPS)
FLUE (LABIAL) PIPES PRODUCE SOUND BY A VIBRATING JET,
LIKE A FLUTE
REED (LINGUAL) PIPES HAVE A VIBRATING REED, LIKE A CLARINET
OPEN FLUE PIPE (metal)
STOPPED PIPE (wood) REED PIPE
IN AN ORGAN REED PIPE, A METAL REED VIBRATES AGAINST A
SHALLOT, MUCH AS A CLARINET REED VIBRATES AGAINST THE
LAY OF A MOUTHPIECE. PRESSURE (POSITIVE) FEEDBACK LOCKS
THE REED VIBRATIONS TO A RESONANCE OF THE PIPE
THE VIBRATING REED ISTUNED
BY MEANS OF A TUNING WIRE
TO A FREQUENCY NEAR THAT
OF ONE OF THE PIPE
RESONANCES.
REED PIPES, WHICH HAVE
CYLINDRICAL OR CONICAL
RESONATORS, ARE GIVEN
SUCH NAMES AS CLARINET,
KRUMMHORN, TROMPETTE,
RANKETTE, etc.
RESONANCE FREQUENCIES OF OPEN AND
CLOSED PIPES, CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL
COUPLING OF REED TO RESONATOR
THE REED CAN COUPLE TO ANY OF THE PIPE RESONANCES
A G4 TROMPETTE PIPE
HAS RESONANCES AT
243, 488, 729, AND 972 Hz,
SHOWN BY THE
HORIZONTAL LINES.
BY VARYING THE
VIBRATING LENGTH OF
THE REED, IT CAN BE
MADE TO LOCK INTO
ANY OF THESE
RESONANCES.
(Miklόs, Angster, Pitsch,
and Rossing, 2006)
PIPE RESONATORS MAY BE OPEN OR CLOSED CYLINDERS, CONES.
BROAD FLUTE PIPES EMPHASIZE THE FUNDAMENTAL, WHILE
“STRING” STOPS HAVE NARROW PIPES WITH MORE HARMONICS.
DIAPASON OR PRINCIPAL STOPS ARE SOMEWHERE BETWEEN.
PIPE SCALING
THE SCALE OF A RANK OF PIPES REFERES TO THE RATIO OF DIAMETER TO
LENGTH FOR THE PIPE OF LOWEST PITCH
FOR AN OPEN CYLINDRICAL PIPE, THE END CORRECTION AT THE OPEN END
ADDS 0.6 TIMES THE RADIUS, WHEREAS AT THE MOUTH OF A FLUE PIPE, ONE
ADDS ABOUT 2.7 TIMES THE RADIUS
THUS IN A LARGE-SCALE PIPE, ONLY THE LOWEST HARMONICS ARE SOUNDED
NORMALLY, THE MOUTH WIDTH, LIP CUT-UP, AD WIDTH OF THE FLUE OPENING
FOLLOW THE SAME SCALE AS THE PIPE DIAMETER
SOUND RADIATION FROM FLUE PIPES
A STOPPED PIPE RADIATES ONLY FROM ITS MOUTH; THE
RADIATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL AND LOW HARMONICS IS
NEARLY ISOTROPIC. FOR HIGHER HARMONICS THE RADIATION
IS MORE CONCENTRATED IN FRONT OF THE MOUTH
AN OPEN PIPE HAS TWO COHERENT SOURCES AT THE MOUTH
AND OPEN END, WHICH ARE IN PHASE FOR ODD HARMONICS
AND OUT OF PHASE FOR EVEN HARMONICS. TYPICAL
RADIATION PATTERNS ARE:
THE PIPES OF AN ORGAN CAN BE LAID OUT IN A MATRIX.
EACH ROW CONTAINS PIPES OF A SINGLE RANK
EACH COLUMN CONTAINS ALL PIPES FOR A SINGLE NOTE.
DRAWSTOPS CONTROL ADMISSION OF AIR TO THE PIPES OF A RANK
KEYS CONTROL AIR TO PIPES OF A NOTE
PIPES AT ALL ACTIVE INTERSECTIONS PRODUCE SOUND
ORGANS IN STANFORD MEMORIAL CHURCH
MEMORIAL CHURCH HAS FOUR ORGANS:
●THE MURRAY HARRIS ORGAN WAS
BUILT IN 1901 AND ENLARGED IN 1915.
●THE FISK-NANNEY ORGAN, BUILT IN
1985, IS THE LARGEST, WITH 73 RANKS
AND ALMOST 4500 PIPES
●THE SIDE CHAPEL HOUSES THE
KATHERINE POTTER-BRINEGAR ORGAN,
A ONE-MANUAL RENAISSANCE-STYLE
ORGAN BUILT IN 1985
●THE CONTINUO ORGAN WITH THREE
STOPS, BUILT BY MARTIN PASI, WAS
ACQUIRED IN 2001
WANAMAKER ORGAN (PHILADELPHIA)
Built by the Los Angeles
Art Organ Company for the
1904 St. Louis World's
Fair, the Wanamaker
Organ was designed by
renowned organ architect
George Ashdown Audsley..
This heroic instrument had
more than 10,000 pipes,
and its construction was
on such a lavish scale that
costs soared to $105,000,
bankrupting the builder.
CONVENTION HALL (ATLANTIC CITY)
THE WORLD’S LARGEST ORGAN, WITH 30,000 PIPES, IS IN
THE ATLANTIC CITY CONVENTION HALL
TUNING ORGAN PIPES
REED PIPES ARE TUNED BY MOVING THE TUNING WIRE UP
AND DOWN.
FLUE PIPES ARE TUNED BY CHANGING THE EFFECTIVE
LENGTH . IN A CLOSED PIPE, THIS IS ACCOMPLISHED BY
MOVING THE STOPPER UP OR DOWN.
MANY OPEN PIPES HAVE A TUNING SLEEVE THAT SLIDES UP
AND DOWN; OTHERS HAVE AN ADJUSTABLE SLOT NEAR
THE OPEN END.
VOICING ORGAN PIPES
VOICING MEANS MAKING ADJUSTMENTS IN THE VARIOUS
PARTS OF THE PIPE SO THAT IT “SPEAKS” PROPERLY. SOME
OF THE MAIN PARAMETERS ADJUSTED DURING VOICING:
THE SIZE OF THE FOOT BORE
THE CONDITION OF THE BORE
NICKING
THE WIDTH OF THE FLUE
OBSTRUCTION NEAR THE MOUTH (“ROLLER BEARD”)
THE HEIGHT OF THE LANGUID
THE HEIGHT OF THE MOUTH (CUT-UP)
SETTING OF THE UPPER LIP
THE CONDITION OF THE UPPER LIP