Introduction:
 Lexington and Concord, April 1775—call to arms
 ~20k “Minute Men” swarmed Boston
 2 nd Continental Congress, May 1775, in Phillie
 All 13 colonies sent reps
 Still no well-defined sentiment for independence
 Desire to continuing fighting until king and Parl would consent to redress of grievances
 Drafted new appeals to Brit king and Parl; appeals were spurned
 Adopted measures to raise money and create an army and navy
Congress Drafts George Washington:
 Most impt single action of Congress—selection of Washington to head army
 Gifted w/ outstanding powers of leadership; immense strength of character
 Radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, sense of justice
 Great moral force; symbol and rallying pt
 People instinctively trusted him
 His selection mainly political
 Prudence suggestion a commander from VA
 Largest and most populated colony
Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings:
 War on contradictory basis
 Cont’d to affirm loyalty to king; desire to patch up difficulties
 Cont’d to raise armies and battle against Brit soldiers
 Curious war of inconsistency fought for 14 months before steps toward independence were taken
 May 1775—Ticonderoga and Crown Point
 Amer force under Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold capture Brit garrison
 June 1775—Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill) seized by Amer forces
 Allowed for siege of Boston
 Bad decisions by Brits led to slaughter (at 1 st )
 Amer forces ran out of gun powder; forced to abandon hill in disorder
 July 1775—Continental Congress adopted Olive Branch Petition
 Professed Amer loyalty to crown, begged king to prevent further hostilities
 Following Bunker Hill—King George III formally proclaimed colonies in rebellion and treasonous
 Hired 1000s of German troops to crush rebellion (Hessians)

Shocked the colonists; felt this was a “family quarrel”

Hessians proved to be good soldiers in mechanical sense; many proved more interested in booty than duty

100s deserted and remained in Amer to become respected citizens
The Abortive Conquest of Canada:
 Oct 1775—rebels took on 2-pronged invasion of Canada
 Successful assault on Canada would add 14 th colony; deprive Brit of valuable base for attacking colonies
 Contradicted claim of colonist that they were merely fighting defensively for redress of grievances

 Invasion of Canada narrowly missed success
 Montreal captured; Montgomery killed, B Arnold forced to retreat
 French Canadians not eager to help anti-Cath invaders
 Jan 1776—Brits burn Norfolk, VA
 March 1776—Brits forced to evacuate Boston
 Evacuation Day still celebrated annually
 Feb 1776—rebels defeat loyalists at Moore’s Creek Bridge in NC
 June 1776—revels defeat invading Brit fleet at Charleston harbor
Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense:
 Loyalty to GB deeply ingrained
 Many Amers considered themselves part of trans-Atlantic community
 Colonial unity was poor
 Open rebellion dangerous, esp vs formidable Brit forces
 Opinions began changing more after burning of Falmouth and Norfolk, hiring of Hessians
 1776—publication of Common Sense by Thomas Paine
 One of most influential pamphlets ever written
 Began w/ treatise on nature of govt; enticipated Jefferson’s declaration
 Only lawful states were those that derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed”
 As for the king, whom Amers professed to revere, he was nothing but “the Royal Brute of Great Brit”
 120,000 copies sold
 Convinced many their true cause was independence
 Pointed out w/o indep Amer could not hope for foreign assistance
Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism”:
 Common Sense not only called for indep, but for creation of new kind of pol society
 A republic—power flowed from the people themselves
 All govt officials derive auth from popular consent
 Republicanism appealed to those Brit politicians critical of excessive power in hands of the king and his advisors
 Their writings found responsive audience in Amer
 Interpreted vengeful royal acts as part of monarchical conspiracy to strip liberties of Brit subjects
 Paine’s radical prescription—reject monarchy and empire; embrace an indep republic
 Colonists’ experience w/ governance prepared them well for Paine’s call to create a republic
 Practiced a kind of republicanism already (esp in NE)
 Town mtgs, annual elections, popularly elected committees of correspondence
 Absence of hereditary aristocracy; relative equality of condition of landowning farmers
 Most Amer considered citizen “virtue” essential to successful rep govt

Indiv needed to sacrifice personal self-interest to public good

Collective good of “the people” mattered more than private rts and interests of indivs
 Some Patriots did not agree w/ Paine’s approach to republicanism
 Favored rep ruled by a “natural aristocracy” of talent
 Feared fervor for liberty would overwhelm stability of social order
Jefferson’s “Explanation” of Independence:
 June 7, 1776—Richard Henry Lee of VA moved that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states”
 Motion adopted on July 2 nd
 Formal declaration of indep by Amer colonies

 A break of this kind called for a formal explanation
 Emotional appeal needed to enlist other Brit colonies in the Amers to invite assistance from foreign nations and rally resistance at home
 Thomas Jefferson given task of drafting formal stmt of separation
 Recog as brilliant writer
 Declaration of Independence formally approved on July 4 th
 Gave his appeal universality by invoking “natural rights” of mankind; not just Brit rts
 Argued colonists were justified in cutting connection
 Long list of presumably tyrannous misdeeds of King George III
 Imposing taxes w/o consent
 Dispensing w/ trial by jury

Abolishing valued laws
 Est mil dictatorship

Maintaining standing armies in peacetime

Cutting off trade

Burning towns

Hiring mercenaries

Inciting hostilities among the Indians
 “The world’s greatest editorial”
 W/ formal decl or indep, foreign assistance could now be solicited w/ greater hope of success
 Decl of Indep became source of inspiration to countless revolutionary mvmts against arbitrary auth
 i.e. Decl of the Rights of Man in Fr Rev
Patriots and Loyalists:
 Amer rebels—Patriots
 Also called “Whigs” after oppos factions in Brit
 Most numerous in areas where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished
 New England esp
 Colonials loyal to king—Loyalists
 Also called “Tories” after dominant pol party in Brit
 “A Tory is a thing whose head is in Eng, and its body in Amer, and its neck ought to be stretched”
 ~16% of Amer pop
 Many were people of educ and wealth, of culture and caution
 More numerous among older generation
 Included the king’s officers and other beneficiaries of the crown
 Typically most numerous where Anglican Church was strongest
 Notable exception—VA
 Also found in aristocratic NYC and Charleston; Quaker Penns and NJ
 Rev mvmt was minority mvmt
 Most Amers were apathetic or neutral
 Opposing forces not only contended against one another but also for allegiance and support of civilian pop
 Brit mil proved only able to control areas where it could maintain massive mil presence
 Rebel militiamen took up task of “pol educ”; agents of rev ideas
 Families often split over issue of indep
The Loyalist Exodus:
 Pre-DOI—persecution of Loyalists relatively mild

 Post-DOI—roughly handled
 Tarring and feathering; riding astride fence rails
 Nothing like Reign of Terror seen dur Fr Rev
 Colonists reflected Anglo-Saxon regard for order
 Leading Loyalists fled to GB
 ~80,000 were driven out or fled
 Estates of many were confiscated and sold
 ~50k Loyalist volunteers bore arms for Brits during the war
 Served as spies
 Incited Indians
 Kept Patriot soldiers at home to protect their families
 Major blunder of Brits was to not make full use of them in fighting
General Washington at Bay:
 Following evacuation of Boston in March 1776, Brits concentrated on NY as base of ops
 Summer/Fall 1776—Battle of Long Island
 Disaster befell Amer troops
 Washington escaped to Manhattan Island; fled to New Jersey and Delaware R
 Patriot cause at low ebb
 Brit mistake—General William Howe didn’t go in for the final kill
 No mil genius
 Country was rough; supplies slow coming; didn’t like winter campaigning
 Washington takes advantage of these facts
 Dec 26, 1776—recrossed Delaware R; surprises Hessians at Trenton
 Week later—defeat small Brit detachment at Princeton
Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion:
 Brit strategy—capture Hudson R valley in 1777
 Sever NE from rest of states; paralyze Amer cause
 Gen John Burgoyne would push down Lake Champlain route from Canada
 Gen Howe could advance up Hudson R from NY to meet Burgoyne at Albany
 Col Barry St. Leger would come in from west thru Lake Ontario and Mohawk Valley
 General B Arnold assembled a tiny flotilla in Lake Champlain; eventually defeated by Brits
 His daring and skill managed to buy some time; forced Burgoyne to retreat to Canada
 Had this not occurred—Burgoyne would have most likely recaptured Fort Ticonderoga; had a more favorable springboard to push into US
 Burgoyne began invasion loaded down with people and baggage
 Howe chose to join main Brit army for an attack on Phillie rather than join up w/ Burgoyne like planned
 Wanted to force general engagement w/ Washington’s army, destroy it, leave path wide open for
Burgoyne’s thrust
 Assumed he had ample time to help Burgoyne if needed
 Washington had transferred his troops to Phillie
 Late 1777—defeated in two battles
 Brandywine Creek
 Germantown
 Retired to winter quarters at Valley Forge
 Able to whip troops into prof army with leadership of drillmaster Baron von Steuben
 Burgoyne gets bogged down; flanked by Amer militiamen
 St. Leger’s forces are defeated at Oriskany

 Burgoyne forced to surrender his entire command at Saratoga Oct 17, 1777 to Gen Horatio Gates
 Saratoga ranks high among decisive battles of both Amer and world history
 Revived the faltering colonial cause
 Made possible the urgently needed foreign aid from France
 This helped ensure Amer indep
Revolution in Diplomacy?:
 France—wanted revenge against GB; eager to inflame quarrel in Amer
 Stage set for diplomatic debut for Amer
 Rebellious Amers also harbored revolutionary ideas about internatl affairs
 Wanted end to colonialism and mercantilism
 Supported free trade and freedom of the seas
 Hoped to substitute rule of law for raw power to arbitrate affairs of nation
 Summer 1776—Cont Congress drafted a Model Treaty
 To guide Amer commissioners sent to French court
 No pol connection
 No mil connection
 Only a commercial connection
 Represents emerging school of thought
 Turning pt in history when mil conflict would be abandoned and bonds of mutual commercial interest would guar peaceful relations among states
 Ben Franklin sent to Paris; determined his appearance should herald diplomatic rev Amers hoped to achieve
 Deliberately violated every norm of diplomatic behavior
 Shocked the royal court; ordinary Parisians adored him

Seen as specimen of new democratic social order, devoid of pretense and ornament
 Post-Saratoga defeat of Brits 1777
 Parl passed measure offering Amer home rule w/in Brit empire
 Franklin played on French fears of Anglo-Amer reconciliation
 Feb 6, 1778—France offers treaty of alliance
 Didn’t conform exactly to Model Treaty
 Its 1 st entangling mil alliance; would soon regret it
 Constituted an official recognition of Amer’s indep; lent powerful mil heft to Patriot’s cause
The Colonial War Becomes a Wider War:
 Amer Rev goes global in 1778 w/ France’s entry as ally
 Spain and Holland entered against Brit in 1779
 Brit Isles seemed at times to be at mercy of hostile warships
 1780—Catherine the Great of Russia organized the Armed Neutrality
 Lined up almost all remaining Eur neutrals in attitude of passive hostility toward GB
 War now being fought not only in Eur and No Amer; also in So Amer, Caribbean and Asia
 To GB—scuffle in New World became secondary
 Amer deserve credit for keeping war going until 1778
 But didn’t really achieve indep until conflict erupted into multi-power world war
 1778-1783—Fr provided Amer w/ guns, $$, equipment, ~ ½ of Amer’s regular armed forces, almost all over Amer’s naval strength
 France’s entry into war forced GB to change its strategy
 Evacuated Phillie and concentrated strength on NYC
 June 1778—Washington attacks Brits leaving Phillie; Brits escaped to NYC

 Battle indecisive but ~ 1/3 of Hessians deserted the Brits
Blow and Counterblow:
 Summer 1780—6000 French troops commanded by Comte de Rochambeau arrive in RI
 No real mil advantage came immediately; preparations made for Franco-Amer attack on NY
 Fall 1780—Benedict Arnold turned traitor
 Hit Amer morale
 Felt his valuable services were not fully appreciated
 Plotted w/ Brits to sell out key stronghold of West Point
 By accident—plot detected in nick of time
 Arnold fled to GB
 Brits strategy to “roll up the colonies” starting in So
 Loyalists more numerous there
 GA overrun 1778-1779
 Charleston, SC fell 1780
 Warfare intensified in Carolinas
 Patriots bitterly fought Loyalist neighbors
 Tide turned late 1780/early 1781—King’s Mountain and Cowpens
 Carolina campaign of 1781—Nathaniel Greene distinguished himself by strategy of delay

Standing and then retreating= exhausting Gen Charles Cornwallis

Losing battles to win campaigns

Succeeded in clearing most of GA and SC
The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier:
 In the West—Indian allies of George III hoped to protect their land; busy w/ torch and tomahawk
 Brit “hair buyers” paid bounties for Amer scalps
 1777—“the bloody year” on the frontier
 Iroquois Confederacy split on alliances
 Oneidas and Tuscaroras sides w/ Amers
 Senecas, Mohawks, Cayugus, and Onondagas sided w/ GB
 Believed GB victory would restrain Amer expansion into West
 1784—Treaty of Fort Stanwix
 Pro-Brit Iroquois forced to sign
 1 st treaty between US and an Indian nation
 Indians forced to cede most of their land
 Amer cont to move westward despite the war
 Brits vulnerable to attack in Illinois country
 Held only scattered posts that had been captured from the French
 George Rogers Clark—1778-1779—captured in quick succession many of these forts
 Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes
 Some argue that his success forced GB to cede the region north of Ohio River to US as part of the peace treaty
 Amer navy—handful of nondescript ships
 Most famous commanding officer—John Paul Jones
 Tiny naval force never made a real dent in GB’s fleets
 Chief contribution—destroying Brit merchant shipping; carrying war into waters around Brit isles
 Privateers were more numerous and damaging
 Privately owned armed ships (legalized pirates)
 Authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping

 “sailors of fortune”
 Had unfortunate effect of diverting manpower from main war effort; involving Amers in speculation and graft
 Brought in urgently needed gold; harassed the enemy; raised Amer morale by providing victories
 Merchant ships compelled to sail in convoys
 Brit shippers and manufacturers pressured Parl to end war
Yorktown and the Final Curtain:
 1780-1781—one of darkest periods of war
 Inflation of currency
 Govt virtually bankrupt
 Sense of unity withered
 Mutinous sentiments infected the army
 General Cornwallis fell back to Yorktown to await supplies and reinforcements
 Assumed GB would maintain control of the sea
 Brit naval superiority slipped away at that time
 Admiral de Grasse advised Amers he could join them in assault on Yorktown
 Washington swiftly moved from NY area to the Chesapeake
 Washington and Rochambeau beset Brit by land; de Grasse blockaded them by sea
 Completely cornered Cornwallis
 Cornwallis surrendered entire force on Oct 19, 1781
 Triumph more due to France than Amer?
 French provided almost all sea power and ~ ½ of regular troops
 George III stubbornly planned to continue fighting
 Fighting cont’d for more than a year after Yorktown
 Patriot-Loyalist fighting in So esp savage
 One of Washington’s most valuable contributions—
 Keep languishing cause alive, army in the field, states together
Peace at Paris:
 Post-Yorktwon--- many Britons weary of war; increasingly ready to come to terms
 Had suffered heavy reverses in India and West Indies
 Lord North’s ministry collapsed March 1782
 Whig ministry replaced Tory regime
 More favorable to Amers
 3 Amer peace negotiators sent to Paris
 Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay
 Given explicit instructions from Congress
 Make no sep peace
 Consult w/ French allies at all stages
 Amer reps chafed under these limitations
 France eager to destroy GB’s empire; wanted indep US
 Indep in abstract, not in action
 Schemed to keep the new Republic east of Allegheny Mtns
 Wanted a weak Amer; would be easier to manage
 John Jay suspicious of French; knew they couldn’t satisfy conflicting ambitions of both Amer and Spain
 Spain wanted payback for helping the French; wanted Allegheny area
 Jay made secret overtures to GB; speedily came to terms
 Preliminary treaty signed 1782; final peace 1783

 Peace Treaty of 1783
 GB formally recog indep of US
 Granted generous boundaries—to Mississippi R in west, Great Lakes in north, Florida in south
 GB retained fisheries of Newfoundland
 American concessions
 Loyalists were not to be further persecuted
 Congress was to recommend to state legs to restore confiscated Loyalist property
 States vowed to put no lawful obstacles in way of Brit creditors collecting debts
 Shutting down war against Amer enabled London to rebuild its army and navy; eventually prevail in later struggle with Napoleon
A New Nation Legitimized:
 Brit’s terms were liberal almost beyond belief; wanted to seduce Amer from its French alliance
 Whig ministry more friendly to Amers than the Tories
 Policy of liberality
 Salve recent wounds
 Reopen trade channels
 Prevent future wars over Appalachian region
 France approved peace terms; relieved by prospect of bringing costly conflict to an end and freeing itself from embarrassing promises to Spain
 US began their national career w/ splendid territorial birthright and priceless heritage of freedom