CHAPTER 8:
POLITICAL
PARTIES
What Is a Political Party?
• In the United States the voting population is
nearly evenly divided between people who
identify themselves as Democrats, as
Republicans and as “independents,” (a voter
who does not identify with a political party).
When control of the legislative and executive
branches of government is divided between the
parties, it is called “divided government.”
What Is a Political Party?
• In the United States the definition of a political party is, “a
group of political activists who organize to win elections,
to operate the government, and to determine public
policy.” This type of definition makes a major distinction
between a political party and an interest group. Interest
groups want to influence a specific type of public policy,
but are not interested in controlling the government. This
definition also distinguishes itself from factions, which
are smaller groups of individuals from within a political
party who are acting together in pursuit of some special
interest or position. For a political party to be successful,
it must unite diverse groups that have different policy
orientations. How much success the political party has
will depend on how effectively the party can convince
voters from various factions to support the candidates of
the party.
What Is a Political Party?
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Although political parties were not provided for in the
Constitution, they are now crucial to the operation of
the government of the United States. Parties perform
essential functions that allow the government to
operate in a stable environment.
Recruiting candidates to run for elective offices at all
levels of government on the party label. By attracting
quality candidates the party enhances its chance of
winning the elective positions and controlling the
government.
Organizing and running elections is the responsibility
of the two major parties in most states. Each major
party mobilizes citizens to become voters in both
primary and general elections.
What Is a Political Party?
•
Presenting alternative policies to the
electorate is an essential role the major
parties perform. The voters do not have
to research where each candidate stands
on every issue. By understanding the
position of each party on the major
issues the voter has some indication of
the position of a candidate on these
issues.
What Is a Political Party?
•
Accepting the responsibility of operating
government at all levels of the government is
crucial to the functioning of the political
process. Parties organize how Congress
operates (see Chapter 10 for details on
committee organization), how the president
selects individuals to serve in the executive
branch (see Chapters 11 and 12 for details),
and the president nominates all federal judges,
most of whom are of the same party as the
president (see Chapter 13 for details on the
nomination process). Parties also perform the
same functions at the state and local levels of
government.
What Is a Political Party?
•
Providing organized opposition to the party in
power is often overlooked as an important
aspect of the political process. In many
countries, the party in power controls the
government and limits participation by the
party, or parties, out of power. Such a process
makes it difficult for the people to be made
aware of the problems confronting the
government from a perspective other than the
party in power. In the U.S. the opposition party
has a strong voice in the governmental
process.
A History of Political Parties in the United States
•
Political parties did not exist when the
Constitution was drafted and are not
mentioned anywhere in the Constitution. Yet
the debate surrounding the ratification of the
Constitution also was the era in which political
parties in the United States were created. The
two-party system we not see in our own
political landscape originated among
supporters of the Constitution (the Federalists)
and those who though the state should be the
locus of authority and advocated a Bill of
Rights (the Anti-Federalists).
A History of Political Parties in the United States
•
The formative years in the development of
parties took place between 1790 and 1816.
The Federalist Party became the first party to
gain control of the national government. By
1796 the next major party came into the
political process. This party was headed by
Thomas Jefferson and was called the
Democratic-Republicans. Within a few years
this party became known as simply the
Democratic Party and the current Democratic
Party claims its origin as the party built by
Jefferson.
A History of Political Parties in the United States
•
The Federalist Party began to erode as a
viable party and from 1817 to 1828 only
the Democratic-Republicans had control
of the government. This period,
sometimes called The Era of Good
Feeling, represents one of the very few
times when the United States did not
have a two-party system.
A History of Political Parties in the United States
• The next major party to form was the Whigs in
1828. With the development of the Whigs as a
major political force came the return to a twoparty system, which would last until the
beginning of the turmoil of the Civil War. As the
issues of slavery and state rights divided the
nation, political parties were also divided over
these issues. The Whigs began to collapse as a
party in the mid-1840s and the Democrats
began to divide into various factions.
A History of Political Parties in the United States
•
As the Civil War was about to begin the
next major party was becoming a factor
in the political process. The Republican
Party (not to be confused with the
Democratic-Republicans of the 1790s)
controlled the government for most of
1860 to 1928. During this period the
Democrats were the opposition party and
only gained control of part of the
government for brief periods.
A History of Political Parties in the United States
•
The Democratic party controlled the House of
Representatives for 40 years prior to the election of the
104th Congress (1994), and since 1930 have only lost
control of both houses three times. While the Democrats
were the dominant party in Congress for the 40-year
period from 1954 to 1994, they have traded power back
and forth with the Republicans in the presidency. Since
1930 (1930-2002) Democrats have had 40 years of control
of the executive branch to the Republicans 32 years of
control. Both parties have shared power at the state and
local level since 1930. Some states, like Utah, have had
long periods of Republican control and other states, like
Louisiana, have had long periods of Democratic control.
However, no party other than the Democrats or the
Republicans has controlled the government, or a part of
the government, in the twentieth century. Therefore,
regardless of the dominate party it would seem likely that
one of the two dominate parties will control the government
at both the national and state levels.
The Two Major Parties Today
• Unlike European parties, many of which
are divided along class and religious lines,
parties in the United States are very broad
based coalitions. Because of the structure
of the two-party system, both major parties
must appeal to a wide range of citizens.
Still certain groups are more likely to
affiliate with one party.
The Two Major Parties Today
•
The Democratic party has had support
from the following groups:
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ethnic minorities
members of labor unions
Jewish voters
the working class
women
The Two Major Parties Today
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The Republican party has had support
from the following groups:
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college graduates
higher income families
professionals
business people
The Three Faces of a Party
• Political parties in the United States are
comprised of three components. The
party in the electorate is comprised of the
people who identify with the party or who
regularly vote for the candidates of the
party in general elections. Without the
party in the electorate it would not be
possible for the party to have electoral
success.
The Three Faces of a Party
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Party organization is the second subunit of the
political party. The function of party
organization is to provide leadership and
structure for the party that is not a part of the
government.
The last subunit is the party in the government.
This includes all elected and appointed officials
who gained office on the label of the party.
Once in office the leaders work to organize the
efforts of the party in order to influence
governmental policy that is favorable to the
platform of the party. For a political party to be
successful it must have all three subunits.
The Three Faces of a Party
•
In theory American political parties are
structured like a pyramid, with the national
party organization at the top and the local party
organization serving as the base. This
theoretical structure is not realistic. Rather,
American political parties tend to operate like a
confederacy, where the state parties act
autonomously and have loose connections to
each other, and to the national committee.
The Three Faces of a Party
•
The national party organization receives
the most publicity during the national
convention. Members of the party who
have been selected to attend the
convention, meet to nominate the
presidential candidate, approve the party
platform, and approve the presidential
candidate’s selection of a vicepresidential candidate. This convention
is held once every four years.
The Three Faces of a Party
• Each state also has a party organization.
There is a state chairperson who is
responsible for making the party
competitive in elections at the state level.
Like the national party each state holds a
state convention, which endorses
candidates of the party. Furthermore, a
state party platform is drafted which
focuses on issues at the state level of
government.
The Three Faces of a Party
• The local party organization is very
different in different regions of the country.
In some areas there is little evidence that
the party has any local organization. In
other areas there is a very strong local
organization that controls the local
governmental process. The national party
has little control over the local
organization.
The Three Faces of a Party
•
The partisan outcome of an election is
important for a number of reasons, including
the ability of the majority party to dominate
committees in legislatures, decide
appointments in the executive branch and set
the political agenda. But given the checks and
balances of the American policy making
system, gaining an electoral partisan majority
does not mean absolute power. Indeed, in the
era of ticket splitting (where many voters vote
for candidates of different parties for different
offices) and divided government, majority
partisan advantage is almost always tempered
by the opposition.
Convention Delegates and Voters: How Did They
Compare on the Issues in 2004?
Convention Delegates and Voters: How Did They
Compare on the Issues in 2004?
Why Has the Two Party System Endured?
•
In 2004 the United States Constitution is 217
years old. During this time there have been
108 Congresses elected and 52 presidential
elections. During only 28 years under the
Constitution has the U.S. not had a two-party
system. Since 1856, or for the last 144 years,
the U.S. has had nothing but a two-party
system. There are at least five major reasons
for the two-party system in the United States.
Why Has the Two Party System Endured?
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Historical foundation of the two-party system:
on most major issues confronting the country
there have usually been two competing
groups. This duality helped to initiate a twoparty system and has maintained this system
through the present.
Political Socialization and Party Identification:
For generation after generation all that has
existed is a two party system. If individuals are
not exposed to anything but a two-party
system, they will not likely seek change to a
different type of system.
Why Has the Two Party System Endured?
•
Political culture of the United States: this
has been influenced by the concept of
individualism, as opposed to collective
initiative. Unlike many European
countries which foster the collective effort
and there are numerous parties, the
United States political culture has served
to maintain a two-party system.
Why Has the Two Party System Endured?
•
Winner-take-all electoral system: this system allows the
election of a candidate who has received the most votes.
The political party whose candidates finish behind the
winning candidate receive nothing. If a party is able to gain
19 percent of the vote nationwide, but in no single district
did a candidate receive plurality of the vote, the party is not
successful in getting a candidate elected. Many countries
use proportional representation in elections. Such a
system allows a party to receive the number of elected
officials equal to the percentage of the vote the party
received. If a party receives 19 percent of the vote it would
then receive 19 percent of the seats in the legislature. As
long as the U.S. continues to use a winner-take-all electoral
system (including in the electoral college), it is highly
unlikely that a minor party will be successful.
Why Has the Two Party System Endured?
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State and federal laws favoring the two
parties: this occurs because the two
major parties are in control of the policymaking process. As long as the
Democrats and Republicans are in
power at the state and national levels
they will continue to pass laws which
favor the two-party system and will pass
laws making it difficult for new parties to
develop.
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Political History
• The 1992 presidential election serves as an excellent
example of the impact a candidate who is not affiliated with
one of the two major parties can have on the electoral
process. Ross Perot ran as an independent candidate and
received 19 percent of the total popular vote. Only two
candidates, not affiliated with a major party, have received a
higher percentage of the popular vote in this century (T.
Roosevelt 1912; and LaFollette 1924). However Mr. Perot,
like Mr. Roosevelt, and Mr. LaFollette did not win the election.
In Mr. Perot’s case he did not receive any electoral votes.
Nonetheless, many would contend that he impacted the
election by taking votes from either Mr. Bush or Mr. Clinton.
This demonstrates that candidates who are not from the two
major parties are not likely to win an election, because of the
reasons listed above. But their candidacies can have an
impact. Furthermore, when a candidate from a third party runs
for the office of president and is unsuccessful and then runs
again four years later the percentage of vote the candidate
receives is considerably less. Mr. Perot only received 8.5
percent of the popular vote in 1996. But candidates from
minor parties can still have an impact on the political process.
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S.
Political History
•
For example, some claim that the
candidacy of Ralph Nader on the Green
Party ticket hurt Democrat Al Gore’s
chances of winning the presidency,
particularly given how close the election
was. Some asserted that Nader took
votes from Gore, thus giving George W.
Bush an edge.
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S.
Political History
•
Historically there have been important minor
parties in the United States. The following
represent some of the more important minor
parties based on a particular philosophy or
ideology:
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Socialist Labor Party (began 1877)
Socialist Party (began in 1901)
Communist Party (split from the Socialist Party in
1919)
Socialist Worker’s Party (began in 1938)
Libertarian Party (began in 1972)
Reform Party (began in 1996)
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S.
Political History
• Not all minor parties have been based on a
different ideology from the major parties. A few
minor parties are formed when members of one
of the two major parties are dissatisfied with the
leader of the major party, or the members are
dissatisfied with the platform of the major party.
These are usually referred to as spin-off parties.
For example, the Bull-Moose Progressives were
a spin-off of the Republican party. The BullMoose Progressives were those reform-minded
Republicans who supported the candidacy of
Theodore Roosevelt over that of William Howard
Taft.
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S.
Political History
•
Since 1860, no presidential candidate
has been elected from a minor party.
Very few members of Congress have
been elected on the label of a minor
party. But minor parties have had an
impact in that they raise issues that the
two major parties must address. These
parties also provide voters with another
option.
Mechanisms of Political Change
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Realignment is a process in which a substantial
number of voters switch party allegiance. There have
been two realigning elections in U.S. history—1896
and 1932.
Realignments may result in one of two things; first, the
existing dominant party may become strengthened, as
was the case in in 1860. Secondly, the parties may
become more evenly matched, as the election 1968
proved when Nixon was able to draw substantial
numbers of southern whites from the Democratic Party.
There is also a myth associated with realignments that
they are predictable, occurring every 36 years. Recent
elections have disproved this idea.
Mechanisms of Political Change
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The term dealignment is used to describe a
reduction in long-term party loyalty. As
evidence of dealignment proponents point to
the growth of independent voters and the
growing occurrence of split-ticket voting.
However, studies show that there are actually
few truly independent voters. The majority of
those who refer to themselves as
independents are actually leaners, meaning
more often than not they consistently support
one party over another. The true independents
are called swing voters. These voters
frequently swing from one party to another.
Mechanisms of Political Change
•
Tipping is another phenomenon that can
change the political landscape. Tipping
occurs when the demographics of a party
changes. If the group becomes
dominant in a particular geographical
area, the party becomes dominant for
that reason alone.