Linkage Institutions
Linkage Institution: The channels
through which people’s concerns
become political issues on the
government’s policy agenda.
Lineberry Chapters 7, 8, and 11
I. Media

Media includes TV news, newspapers, internet
stories, magazines, etc.

Media and Politics
A. First Amendment – 5 Freedoms
B. Press Conferences – Press Conferences: meetings of
public officials with reporters
C. Investigative Journalism - the use of in-depth reporting
to unearth scandals, scams & schemes putting reporters
& politicians opposite each other.
D. Primary Concern of the Media
D. Primary Concern of Media

Overall - $$$
 1. Sound Bites – Stories on TV are mostly
superficial
 Impact on politics?
2. Political Races/ Election Coverage –
3. “Horserace Journalism” News focuses on who is
ahead in the polls, not actual plans
E. Bias in the Media

Political Bias – actual bias towards a belief.
- Most people live in cities so news can take the
perspective of large cities (typically Democrats)

Structural Bias – Nature of the question,
pressing for answers, etc. Also bad news/
scandals are exciting and good news is boring
II. Public Opinion and the Media

A. Agenda Setting – The issues that attract the serious
attention of public officials and other people actively
involved in politics at the time.
B. Media Events:
– Events purposely staged for the media that
nonetheless look spontaneous. Media events can be
staged by almost anybody.
– The media influence the criteria by which the public
evaluates political leaders.
 Some policies can be made more or less important
depending on their coverage.
The Media’s Agenda-Setting
Function

Does the media show us what we want to
see or do we focus only on the things that
the media shows us?
III. Media and Politics

The Broadcast Media – Private ownership
– TV made the politicians more aware of their
appearance and mannerisms.
– Television is the principal source of news for
most Americans, and most believable.
– The Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) regulates the use of airwaves.
III. Media and Politics continued

The Media and the Scope of Government
– The media as watchdog restricts politicians.
– New proposals are met with skepticism - so that
restricts what the government can do.
– But, if the media identify a problem, they ask
what the government is going to do to fix it.
IV. POLITICAL PARTIES

Political Party:
– A “team of men [and women] seeking to control
the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly
constituted election.”

Parties can be thought of in three parts:
1. Party in the electorate
2. Party as an organization
3. Party in government
What Parties Do
– Parties Pick Candidates
– Parties Run Campaigns
– Parties Give Cues to Voters
– Parties Articulate Policies
– Parties Coordinate Policymaking
Three Headed Political Giants
(where the party works)
 Party
and the Electorate
 Party Organization
 Party in Government
Figure 8.1
1. The Party in the Electorate

A. Party identification is a citizen’s selfproclaimed preference for one party or the other.
Still most important factor!
 B. Ticket-splitting:
– Voting with one party for one office and with another
party for other offices.
– Ticket-splitting has become the norm in American
voting behavior.
2. The Party as an Organization
These are the people that work for the party.
Parties are fragmented and decentralized. Party can
lead but members do not have to follow (ticket
splitting). National party can lead.
– A. Patronage: A job, promotion/contract given for
political reasons rather than merit. Used by party
machines.
– B. Pendelton Civil Service Act 1883 – Govt.
workers must pass a test to prove they are qualified.
– C. Hatch Act – 1939 – Prohibits government
employees from active participation in partisan
politics while at work.
3. The Party in Government:
Elected Officials

These are the party members actually elected to
government.
 Candidates are less dependent on parties to get
elected, but they still need help.
 Coalition:
– A group of individuals with a common interest upon
which every political party depends.

Parties & politicians generally do what they say
they will do.
IV. Party Eras in American History

Party Eras
– Historical periods in which a majority of
votes cling to the party in power.
 Critical Election
– An electoral “earthquake” where new
issues and new coalitions emerge.
 Party Realignment
– The displacement of the majority party by
the minority party, usually during a
critical election.
Party Eras in American History

A. 1796-1824: The First Party System
– Madison warned of “factions”
– First party were the Federalists

B. 1828-1856: Democrats Versus the Whigs
– Whigs formed mainly in opposition to Democrats

C. 1860-1928: The Two Republican Eras
– Republicans rose as the antislavery party
– 1896 election revolved around the gold standard

D. 1932-1964: The New Deal Coalition
– Forged by the Democrats - relied upon urban
working class, ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews,
the poor, Southerners
Most common question on the exam with coalitions
is the NDC! <why?>
E. 1968-Present: The Era of Divided Party
Government
– Southerners realign with Republicans (still there)
– Party dealignment - disengagement of people from
parties
– Party neutrality - people are indifferent towards the two
parties
VI. Third Parties:

Political parties other than Democrat or Republican
 A. 3 Kinds
– Specific Causes/Issues (Green Party)
– Splinter/ Offshoot of major party (Dixiecrats or The
Progressive Party)
– Individual Ideas – Perot 1992
B. Contributions/ Advantages

1. Third parties bring new groups and ideas
into the electorate.
 2. Bring attention to issues
 3. Safety valve for discontent if the two
major parties do not support an idea
B. Problems of Third Parties/
Negatives

1. Don’t win elections
 2. Don’t seek broad support (not catch-all)
 3. Obstacles to success
– Electoral College
– Winner take-all / Single Member Districts
– 2 Party system entrenched
VII. Interest Groups

Defined – An organization of people with
shared policy goals entering the policy
process at several points to try to achieve
those goals. Interest groups pursue their
goals in many arenas.
A. Contemporaries Theories
of Democracy

1. Pluralism –

2. Elitism

3. Hyperpluralism
– A. Subgovernments (Iron Triangles)
VIII. INTEREST GROUPS: HOW
THEY WORK

Factors in the success of Interest Groups
– A. Size/ Olson’s Law of Large Groups –
– Potential group: All the people who might be
interest group members because they share a
common interest.
– Actual group: The part of the potential group
consisting of members who actually join.

B. Intensity
– Single-Issue groups: Groups that focus on
a narrow interest and dislike compromise.
– Groups may focus on an emotional issue,
providing them with a psychological
advantage.
– May be more likely to use protests and
other means of political participation than
traditional interest groups that use
lobbyists.

C. Financial Resources
– Not all groups have equal amounts of
money.
– Monetary donations usually translate into
access to the politicians - a phone call, a
meeting, etc.
– There is a bias towards the wealthier
groups.
– The wealthier groups don’t always win in
the policy arena.
IX. How IG Shape Policy

A. Lobbying
– Grassroots Lobbying – When citizens contact
their own legislators to try to influence
legislation and policy
B. Electioneering/PACS – Money to
campaigns. PACs created in 1974 to track
money
 C. Litigation

– Amicus Curiae briefs

D. Moblizing Public Opinion
X. Types of Interest Groups
A. Economic Interests
– Labor – worker rights
 AFL-CIO – Union of Unions – 9 mil members
 Wagner Act 1935 – Legalize unions right to
collectively bargain, rules to protect unions,
and creates National Labor Relations Board.
– Business (largest number of IG) – Industry,
banks, MNC’s - Worry about regulation,
taxes, minimum wage
Types - Continued
B. Environmental Interests – Green Peace,
Sierra Club, anti-nuclear groups
C. Equality Interests – NAACP, NOW
D. Consumer and Public Interest Lobbies –
Seek a collective good, protect children
(products). These helped create the
Consumer Product Safety Commission in
1973
XI. Impact of Interest Groups
– IG’s seek to change the policy agenda and they
can!
– IG’s are a source of information, can write
legislation, and can plan strategies for legislation.
– They can help politicians plan strategies for
reelection campaigns.
– They can provide ideas and innovations that can
be turned into policies that the politician can take
credit for.
– They can donate money to campaigns,
END