Liberalism and the 1960s
Chapter 29
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
 War
in Vietnam
 War on Poverty
 War on Conformity
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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As the American middle class grew during the
1950s, American writers observed concern
about the same-ness of that class
Neighborhoods, corporate workplaces,
churches, political parties all seemed to value a
homogenized “American look.”
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Examples of writers who commented on this
phenomenon:
David Reisman, The Lonely Crowd
William Whyte, The Organization Man
Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Gray Flannel
Suit
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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The “Beats” railed against this lifestyle in their
poetry.
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Allen Ginsburg – “Howl”
Jack Kerouac – On the Road
By 1960, mainstream writers were doing so as
well:
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John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society
John Updike, Rabbit, Run
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Artists also “rebelled” and painted in
unorthodox styles
Edward Hopper, paintings of lonely and
isolated individuals in a big city surrounding
Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Mark
Rothko painted increasingly angry and abstract
images
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Eisenhower had served two terms and could
not run for a third term in 1960.
Republican Party nominated his vice president,
Richard M. Nixon
Nixon had made a name for himself in the anticommunist crusades of the 1950s.
Democrats nominated young Senator John F.
Kennedy of Massachusetts
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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By today’s standards, both candidates seem
remarkably conservative.
Platforms were not markedly different
But Kennedy did propose modest social
changes
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raise in minimum wage
renewal of city neighborhood
Government-funded medical care for the elderly
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Election returns were close; outcome not decided until
afternoon of the day after the election.
Kennedy mandate slim: popular vote was 51%-49%
Nixon ran for Governor of California in 1962 and lost
Humiliated by this defeat, told reporters in a surly tone
as he conceded:
“You won’t have Dick Nixon to kick
around any more.”

Nixon retired from public life.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Democrats had a majority in Congress
But their agenda was stalled because Southern
Democrats were “Dixiecrats.”
Working with GOP on many issues, they
prevented the social agenda of JFK from
passage.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
The young president seemed idealistic to
many
 Reminiscent of King Arthur character in
popular 1960s musical “Camelot”
 Press began to refer to JFK
administration as “Camelot.”
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Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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May 1961: Civil Rights struggle
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
sponsored first “freedom rides”
Busloads of black and white college students
rode buses to Southern states to encourage
black residents to register to vote
Much resistance from local Southern
governments
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Controversial JFK appointment:
Made his brother, Robert F. Kennedy (RFK),
Attorney General.
RFK announced his intention to use
Department of Justice as an active force in
desegregation of schools, colleges,
transportation, and to watch over voter
registration and elections.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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JFK proposed a Civil Rights Bill to Congress in
1963.
Would have banned segregation and other
racial discrimination in housing, hotels, public
transport of all types, schools, etc.
Would have withheld federal funding from all
segregated states.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Dixiecrats and GOP in Congress once again
stalled this bill.
Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. led a “March on
Washington” of some 200,000 black and white
people demanding the legislation be passed.
Site of “I have a Dream” speech.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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CIA plan in works under Ike, to “liberate” Cuba
CIA infiltrators hoped to recruit anti-Castro
Cubans to assist
Planned landing at the “Bay of Pigs”
JFK inherited plan and OK’d
April 1961: disaster at the Bay of Pigs
CIA agents captured
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Khrushchev ordered construction of Berlin Wall
August 1961 after unsuccessful summit in
Berlin
JFK announcement of increased defense
spending
Huge influx of refugees to the “western” sector
JFK’s famous “Ich bin ein Berliner” speech,
hugely popular with Germans
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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USSR began testing nuclear weapons in the
Fall of 1961
JFK ordered Pentagon to resume underground
testing in USA
Very tense time in Cold War politics
JFK ordered missiles at US Air Force Bases in
Turkey to be pointed “at the ready” towards
USSR
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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October 1962:
U-2
reconnaissance
planes
discovered
missile sites in
Cuba, pointed
at USA
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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JFK announced blockade of Cuba
Ultimatum to USSR: dismantle bases
immediately and remove all nuclear missiles
from Cuba, or face active retaliation
Very tense time
–
Bob Dylan: “A Hard Rain’s A-Gonna Fall”
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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USSR backed down, Khrushchev ordered
missiles removed.
JFK ordered missiles in Turkey removed also.
Began “hot line” communications between the
two nations,
Quiet easing of nuclear tensions after the
“Cuban Missile Crisis”
But in exchange, JFK promised that the US
would not invade Cuba
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Russian ship transporting
missiles away from Cuba
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Following summer (July 1963) Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty signed by all major UN powers
except France and China (neither of which had
full nuclear weapons at this point)
JFK announced peaceful programs (Alliance
for Progress, Peace Corps) to promote
international understanding
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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JFK was assassinated November 22, 1963
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Assassin Lee
Harvey Oswald
was captured
almost
immediately by
Dallas Police
Department after
killing a Dallas
police officer
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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While Oswald was
being moved by the
Dallas PD two days
later, he was
murdered by Jack
Ruby
Jack Ruby later died in
prison of cancer,
without ever revealing
his motives for killing
Oswald
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Lyndon Baines
Johnson (LBJ)
succeeded to the
presidency
He was sworn in on
Air Force One later
on the day of
Kennedy’s
assassination
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Earl Warren (former
California governor, now
Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court) was
named by LBJ to
investigate circumstances
of JFK’s murder
Warren Commission
concluded that Oswald had
acted alone
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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“Oswald acted alone”
This conclusion was unsatisfactory to most
Americans, who believed a wider conspiracy
Many still do
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LBJ continued the programs of JFK
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Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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In 1964, there were many sit-ins, marches,
demonstrations, etc. in support of civil rights
Most public facilities (restaurants, hotels, even
water fountains) were segregated
In many cases, racial segregation had the
force of law
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 passed that
summer
No more employment discrimination, no more
segregated public facilities, etc.
Created Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) was created to
investigate violations related to employment
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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The last remaining voting restrictions
against black persons were removed
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Poll tax (24th Amendment, January 1964)
Grandfather clause, etc.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Medicare Act, 1965: reduced cost medical
care to all on Social Security
Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
1965 (ESEA) increased federal aid to children
in poor schools
Head Start, 1965: quality pre-school
experience for poor children, help them “catch
up” to middle class peers
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Immigration Act of 1965 ended ethnic quotas
Immigration now based entry visas on skills of
the person applying, or on refugee status from
a communist country
Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) established in January,
1965
Set up public housing, tore down slums.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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JFK had started NASA in 1962
Announced goal of “Man on the Moon” before
end of decade.
LBJ continued space exploration programs
Gemini and Apollo programs
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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As more civil rights walls tumbled, American
black people (esp. young) became more and
more impatient for strides to be made more
quickly
Uncovered many problems simmering in inner
city neighborhoods
Manifested as increased militancy among black
urban poor males
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Dr. Martin L. King Jr. announced voter
registration drive in Alabama to utilize the new
voting rights provisions of the 1965 Civil Rights
Act.
March 1965, march from Montgomery AL to
Selma; marchers taunted by AL police
Televised violence that met the marchers led to
demands for further reform
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Voting Rights Act of 1965 provided federal
assistance and protection for anyone working
to register minority voters
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Urban rioting first broke out in poor Watts
section of Los Angeles, 1965
Later “long, hot summers” saw pattern
repeated in poorest urban US areas
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Newark, Detroit, Memphis, Chicago.
LBJ appointed Kerner Commission to
investigate causes of urban riots
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Commission concluded that basic causes
were:
Urban male youths being excluded from Great
Society programs
White police seen as outsiders in urban areas
Lack of black officers on police force
Free rein given to violent police officers
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Leadership of black “Student Non-Violent
Coordinating Committee” (SNCC) morphed
gradually into more militant Black Panther
Party (Stokeley Carmichael.)
Popular and feared Black Panther slogan:
“Burn, baby, burn.”
MLK murder in Memphis April 1968 sparked
more rioting across country
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Cesar Chavez worked to organize United Farm
Workers (Mexican-American pickers)
Urged Americans to boycott all produce picked
by non-union workers
American Indian Movement (AIM) mobilized to
secure civil rights for Native Americans
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Young people brought a new edge to liberalism
on American college campuses, “The New
Left”
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
instrumental in student demonstrations against
the Viet Nam war, and for Civil Rights
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Radical/violent “Weatherman” faction
SDS “Port Huron” statement quoted American
communists and Mao Zedong
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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SDS active in the “campus free speech”
movement; picketed any US government on
campuses (e.g., military recruiters, job
recruitment fairs by contractors in military
industries, companies that practiced
discrimination, etc.)
Began to use “sit in” as a means of disrupting
campus business
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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SDS strong through end of 1960s
Sub groups became increasingly radical,
experimental in music, dress, and lifestyle.
Drug culture often mixed with political
radicalism
Led to a new “counterculture,” protesting all
typical American middle-class life.
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Women’s movement origins:
Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (1963)
National Organization for Women (NOW)
founded 1966 by Friedan, Gloria Steinem,
other men and women seeking equal rights for
female Americans
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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US had a historically small advisory force in
Viet Nam (placed first by Ike in 1956)
In 1964, an American ship in Gulf of Tonkin
was allegedly fired upon by North Vietnamese
LBJ asked Congress for authorization to use
whatever military force was needed to respond
“Gulf of Tonkin Resolution” passed by
Congress
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Escalated into major shooting war, though never a
formal declaration beyond the Tonkin Gulf
Resolution
It was later proved that the ship had not been fired
on, only perceived a threat of NV fire
LBJ consistently requested more troops over next
4 years
Over ½ million American troops in Vietnam by
1968
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
YEAR
1959
760
1960
900
1961
3,025
1962
11,300
500000
1963
16,300
400000
1964
23,300
1965
184,300
1966
385,300
1967
485,600
1968
536,100
1969
475,200
1970
334,600
1971
156,800
1972
24,200
1973
50
Vietnam Troop Strength
600000
Troop Strength
Troop Strength
300000
200000
100000
0
1
3
5
7
9
Year
11
13
15
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Burden of service fell heavily on lower class
young men; middle and upper class families
put their sons in college to obtain student
deferments.
American society divided into “Hawks” (prowar, largely WW II veterans) and “Doves” (antiwar, largely young people)
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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January 1968 Viet Cong offensive over the
Vietnamese New Year (Tet holiday)
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VC = irregular forces allied with the regular army of
communist North Vietnam
Eventual loss for VC but US suffered heavy
casualties.
Number of deaths and injuries sparked many
anti-war demonstrations in US
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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LBJ bowed out of 1968 election campaign after
the Tet debacle; lost heavily in Wisconsin
primary.
In face of loss and of many riots on college
campuses, LBJ declined to seek re-election
rather than risk tearing country apart.
Made himself an instant “lame duck” president;
anti war protests grew
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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After LBJ bowed out, Democrat front-runners
were “Dove” Senator Eugene McCarthy of MN;
pro-Civil Rights Senator Robert Kennedy
(JFK’s brother) of MA; and incumbent Vice
President Hubert Humphrey of MN
RFK was assassinated in summer 1968
McCarthy unable to gain large following
Dems nominated Humphrey at rowdy Chicago
convention
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Chicago riots in and around the convention all
televised; left “bad taste” regarding liberalism in
the mouths of Many mainstream conservative
Americans
GOP capitalized on the many Dem failures
Nominated Richard Nixon and Spiro T. Agnew
on a “peace with honor” and “law and order”
ticket.
Nixon won with 1% margin
Liberalism and
the Wars of the 60s
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Alabama Governor George Wallace led a third
party challenge appealing to fears of
government-engineered integration.
Nixon’s margin likely would have been larger if
Wallace had not entered (Wallace won 14% of
vote)
Evidenced US’ disenchantment with liberalism