Caramani (ed.) Comparative Politics
Section IV: Actors and processes
Chapter 12:
Political Parties
by Richard S. Katz
Chapter 12: Political parties
Introduction (1/1)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Political parties are among the central actors in politics.
Parties are ubiquitous in modern political systems. Governments of most
countries are effectively in the hands of party-leaders.
It is unlikely that social movements or governance networks will replace
parties.
Chapter 12: Political parties
Definition of parties (1/1)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Since parties are very different in their motivation, organization, behaviour
and relevance, it is hardly possible to find an all encompassing definition of
parties.
Nevertheless, the definition of party is significant, both scientifically and
normatively.
Most examples of party-definitions combine the following elements:
- Objective of parties
- Methods of parties
- Their role in political competition
- Autonomous citizens
The term “party” is better considered as a category than as an ideal type.
Chapter 12: Political parties
Origins of parties (1/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Not the existence of factions, but their acceptance was the origin of
parties (disagreement instead of disloyalty; organization instead of
conspiracy).
Earlier parties were parties of intraparliamentary origin:
• Success in gaining control over the executive
• Rise of parliamentary government
Parties of extra-parliamentary origin:
• Founded to organize those excluded from political participation
• Succeeded in inducing the established parties to broaden suffrage
Chapter 12: Political parties
Origins of parties (2/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Parties of internal and external origin differ with respect to their:
- Timing
- Organization
- Social basis
In the late 20th century a new type of externally originating party appeared:
• Hierarchical party organization, depending on material resources
of its leader
• Conservative or pro-business
 Example: Berlusconi’s Forza Italia
Chapter 12: Political parties
The functions of parties (1/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Political parties perform a number of functions that are central to the
operation of modern states:
(1) Coordination:
• With government
• With society
• Between government and society
(2) Contesting elections:
• Providing candidates
• Fund raising for candidates
• Formulating policy positions
Chapter 12: Political parties
The functions of parties (2/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
(3) Recruitment and selection:
• Integrating new citizens (e.g. party youth movements)
(4) Representation:
• Social groupings
• Ideological positions
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (1/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Types of parties:
(1) Cadre or elite parties:
•
The earliest of “modern” parties (parliamentary origin)
•
No need for a party on the ground due to highly restricted
suffrage
•
Mobilizing of personal clientele
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (2/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Types of parties (continued)
(2) Mass parties:
•
2nd half of 19th century (extra-parliamentary origin)
•
Representing a particular group or social class
•
Often built on pre-existing organizations (e.g. trade-unions)
•
Strategy of “encapsulation by providing a range of ancillary
organizations”
•
Extensive organization, dominated by the party’s elite (“iron law
of oligarchy”)
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (3/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Types of parties (continued)
(3) Catch-all parties:
Developed from transformation of mass parties, characterized by:
•
Increasing role of professionals (compared to members)
•
Weaker ideological orientation
•
Strategy to appeal across group boundaries
•
Loosening connection between party and “its” interest
organization
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (4/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Types of parties (continued)
-
Cartel parties:
Pressure on the catch-all model led to four major changes compared
to catch-all parties:
•
Agencies of the state rather than of society
•
Disempowering party activists
•
Further privileging professional expertise
•
Parties form a cartel to protect themselves from electoral risk and
to get subventions from the state
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (5/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Types of parties (continued)
(5) Anti-cartel parties:
•
Frustration with mainstream parties
•
Organized around an idea rather than a social grouping
•
left-libertarian-, new right- or movement parties
(6) Business-firm parties:
•
Forza Italia as model for parties in the future?
(7) Parties in the US:
•
Share many features of cadre parties
•
But candidate selection is run by state regulated primary elections
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (6/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Membership:
All modern parties claim to have membership organizations.
Individual or affiliated membership (trade-unions).
Measures of membership:
•
Number of members
•
Ratio of party membership to size of electorate
•
Organizational density (ratio of members to voters)
Regardless of how party membership is measured, it has
been declining.
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (7/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Regulation:
Increasing number of countries enacts special “party laws” due to:
•
The centrality of parties to democracy
•
The power of parties
•
Administrative necessities
A party becomes official through registration. Registration often brings a
bundle of privileges:
•
Contributions are deductible from taxes
•
Ballot access
•
Public subventions
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (8/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Finance:
Regulation of spending
•
Bans on particular forms of spending (e.g. vote buying)
•
Limitation of total spending
•
Disclosure of spending
Regulations of fundraising
•
Limits on individual contributions
•
Prohibition of financing from some sources (e.g. foreigners,
corporations, trade-unions, etc.)
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (9/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Finance (continued)
Public subventions:

A growing number of countries provide support for parties through:
- Tax system (e.g. deductible contributions)
- Provisions of goods and services (e.g. free air time)
- Direct financial support (often based on voting shares)

Public support for parties is not uncontested:
- Do financial contributions really help parties to perform their
functions better?
- Promoting equality and fairness?
Chapter 12: Political parties
Parties and the stabilization
of democracy (1/1)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Parties play an important role in stabilizing democracy by integrating new
citizens (immigration, age, suffrage extension) into the existing political
system.
But their stabilizing effect is not observable everywhere (e.g. formerly
communist countries, Islamic world).
Whether the electoral success of anti-democratic parties helps to moderate
them, or undermines democracy is an open question.
Are internally oligarchic parties an asset for state-level democracy?
(dilemma for democracy promoting agencies)
Chapter 12: Political parties
Conclusion (1/1)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Political parties remain central to democratic government in the 21st
century.
Nevertheless, parties face a number of challenges:
•
Increasing complexity of problems makes them less tractable
•
Declining party membership
•
More dependent from contributions of special interest groups and
from public subventions
•
Increasing role of competing interest organizations