Projekt
ze środków
Unii Europejskiej
w ramach
Projekt współfinansowany
finasowany ze środków
Unii Europejskiej
w ramach
Europejskiego
Europejskiego Funduszu Funduszu
Społecznego
Społecznego
Inequalities. Introduction
Marek Nowak PhD
marek.nowak@amu.edu.pl
Institute of Sociology AMU
Differences contra inequalities
Differences: observable dissimilarities between
people which do not implicate consequences
of lower or higher position in society (white
hair or black hair, pedestrian contra riding
bike etc.).
2
Differences are aspects of a social structure
(underclass, middle class, lower middle
class, higher middle class etc.). They
inform just about the different positions
peoples have because of their level of
income.
1) An abundance of social roles focus on
norms and values (being a student,
teacher, wife, mother, friend, school
friend etc.).
2) The division of labor (driver, diver, baker,
3
worker, businessman, and so on).
The social stratification
The appraisal of the social position of the
individual (subjective or objective)
because of particular criteria (for example
higher or lower level of disposable income
etc).
Stratification is
a word used
architecture
geology.
the
in
or
4
Inequalities:
those differences which have resulted in the
valuation of social position (higher or
lower, better or worse).
We discuss inequalities when individuals
differ in their level of expectation regarding
his/her needs (in the sense of the level of,
and the quality of consumption).
In Marxian sense: in relation to the location
of the employee in the organization of
production or service (worker contra
burgeois).
5
Examples
6
The level of Gini coef. in 2012
(Eurostat)
Legend Cases
22.9 - 24.44 yellow;
24.4 - 26.35 darker
yellow;
26.3 - 27.43 green;
27.4 - 31.94 darker
green;
31.9 - 35.25 the most
dark green;
Violet: data not available
• Minimum value:22.9
• Maximum value:35.2
Gini coefficient of zero expresses perfect equality where
all values are the same (for example, where everyone
has an exactly equal income). A Gini coefficient of one
(100 on the percentile scale) expresses maximal inequality among values (for example
7
where only one person has all the income).
The same on the Globe
Gini coefficient of national income distribution around the world. This is based on 1989
to 2009 data, estimated by CIA. Some are pre-tax, others post-tax income.
8
The most common concepts of the
differentiations/inequalities
1) (class) Karol Marx: the relation of the one
to the means of production (who are the
owner of, or manager of the MoP (means
of production), and who are not);
The problems with Marx’s concept relate to
the question of the middle sectors of the
labor and society. Marks suggested that
it would disappear (become polarised) in
the process of the growth of capitalist
relations.
9
It h a s n ‘ t h a p p e n e d.
The question was how to analyse (count)
the middle sectors of the society (middleclass)?
The solution we could find in the class
concept of Weber (EGP schema), the
theory of stratification, and the neo
Marxian context.
10
2) (class) Max Weber: class position is
defined by the position of the individual in
the capitalist market (how worthy are your
skills and abilities on the market of skills
and abilities);
3) (status groups) Concept of stratification
(Kingsley Davies and Wilbert Moore,
Ralph Dahrendorf).
11
The present days concepts of a
class
Class traditionally is not based on biological
differentiations.
Contemporary discussion = there are many
examples of ethnic or gender
differentiation which result in one’s socioeconomic position.
As a result now the concept of class is more
quantitative and broader…
12
Examples
13
The Gender Pay Gap in 2012
(by Eurostat)
Legend
4.4 - 8.65 yellow;
8.6 - 14.65 darker yellow;
14.6 - 16.15 green;
16.1 - 19.15 darker green
19.1 - 25.57 the most dark
green
Violet data not available
Minimum value:4.4
Maximum value:25.5
European Commission defines it as the average difference between men’s
and women’s hourly earnings.
14
The same on the Globe
Ratio of female to male salaries according to the Save
the Children State of the World's Mothers
report (2007 data). Each color represents 5% of the
average male pay.
15
Materially based relations = class = inequalities
16
What we can find in the official statistics?
17
Data of the Central Statistical Office
in Poland 2010
18
That is not enough!
19
20
The EGP scheme
„The EGP classes are based on the [1] work
situation (authority and autonomy at work) as
well as [2] market situation (including income,
degree of income security, career prospects and
source of income) of the respondents. Additional
criteria used are distinctions between [3]
owners, employers and employees; between
firms with more or less than 10 employees; and
between manual and non-manual occupations”
(Social class in Europe, European Social
Survey 2002/3).
21
22
Neomarxian perspective
23
What does class mean for Eric
Olin Wright (EOR)?
„... positions withi the social relations of
production derived from the property
relations which determine the patterns of
exploitation” (p. 72).
24
Inequalities by Eric Olin Wright
(EOR)
„… general ambiguity of the term of „class”
in the popular imagination. To some
people it connotes [1] lifestyle and tastes,
the wearing of tennis whites while
gardening [cultural inequalities]. To others
[2] it is mainly about social status, esteem
and respect: to be reclassified „down” the
class hierarchy is demeaning [social
inequalities].
25
… [3] Some see classes as social
categories engaged in collective forms of
conflict, shaping the destiny of society
[coercive or conflictual inequalities]”. [4]
Politicians for „middle-class tax cats” by
which they simply mean „tax cuts for the
middle range of income distribution
[representation inequalities]. And […] [5]
as identifying the basic determinants of a
person’s economic prospects” [inequalities
as a faith] (Approach to Class Ananlysis,
ed. by EOR, 2005, 19)”
26
The problem:
The problem of class now seems to be
difficult because of (a) unfitted traditional
criteria for defining a class and (b)
because it is tied to social deliberation
(to the discussion of culture, to the social
relations as a kind of communication
relations, to the coercive relations of the
ownership of means of production, and to
a (c) diversity of skills and prospects on
the labor market).
27
The basic context of EOR relates to the
Marxian category of e x p l o i t a t i o n
As EOR said: „…it is possible to restor the
central trust of the traditional Marxian
concept of exploitation by making a
distinction between what can be called
‘economic oppression' and 'exploitation'
(EOR, Classes 1985, 74)”
28
„Exploitation […], implies more than just
economic oppression [inequalities as was
defined]; it includes both economic
oppression and the appropriation [kind of
monopoly in ] of the fruits of the labour of
one class by another (which is equvalent
to a transfer of the surplus from one class
to another)”.
29
30
The picture of the social structure
by E.O. Wright
31
The two empirical perspectives
by EOW
32
Why we use this typology (the
advantages)
33
Than...
34
...
35
EGP contra EOR (an example)
36
The Espring Andersen (EA)
concept
„EA’s alternative is to create a typology where, in
his perspective, relevant distinctions between
managers and experts/semi professionals do
not get lost. He also opposes the idea of merging
skilled workers in manufacturing with skilled
workers in essentially service relations”.
37
Industrial contra post-industrial
I n d u s t r i a l : the system built by the mass
production and organisation (centralized, etatist
etc.);
P o s t – i n d u s t r i a l : the system built by
the consumer related production (nish marketing
strategy). Groving importance of the service
sector.
38
Industrial and post-industrial
class scheme EA
39
What it look like (based on
ESS)?
40
… and so on
41
42
43
For Poland and others...
44