PSYCHOLOGY
AN EXPLORATION
Second Edition
CHAPTER
7
development
across the life
span
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
why study human development?
Beginning to understand how we come to be the
people we are is a critical step in understanding
ourselves as we are today and who we may become as
we grow older. From the moment of conception, each
of us is headed down a pathway of change, influenced
by our biology, environment, and social interactions, to
a final destination that is the same for all of us. The
twists and turns of the pathway are what make each of
us unique individuals. In this chapter, we'll look at the
influences that help determine our developmental
pathway through life.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objective Menu
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
LO 7.1
Special research methods used to study development
LO 7.2
Relationship between heredity and environmental
factors
LO 7.3
Chromosomes, genes, DNA and multiple births
LO 7.4
Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
LO 7.5
Physical changes in infancy and childhood
LO 7.6
Looking at cognitive development and how language
develops
LO 7.7
Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
LO 7.8
How adolescents develop formal operation, moral
thinking and adolescent’s search for identity
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objective Menu
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•
•
LO 7.9
aging
LO 7.10
dying
LO 7.11
adults
Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and
Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death and
How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Developmental Research Designs
LO 7.1 Special research methods used to study development
• Human development
– Scientific study of the changes in people
– Covers aging from conception until
death
• Longitudinal design
– Participant or group of participants is
studied over time
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Developmental Research Designs
LO 7.1 Special research methods used to study development
• Cross-sectional design
– Different age groups of participants are
studied at one particular point in time
• Cross-sequential design
– Participants are first studied by crosssectional design
– Followed and assessed for a period up
to six years
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Table 7.1 A Comparison of Three Developmental
Research Designs
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Nature versus Nurture
LO 7.2 Relationship between heredity and environmental factors
• Nature
– Influence of inherited characteristics on
personality, physical growth, intellectual
growth, and social interactions
• Nurture
– Influence of the environment on
personality, physical growth, intellectual
growth, and social interactions
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Nature versus Nurture
LO 7.2 Relationship between heredity and environmental factors
• Behavioral genetics
– Attempts to assess impact of genetics
and environment
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Genetics and Development
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Genetics
– The science of heredity
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
– Basic building blocks of life
– Gene
 Instructions
 Are sections of DNA
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Genetics and Development
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
– Dominant
 Gene actively controls the expression of
a trait
 Example: Huntington’s and Marfan’s
disorders
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Genetics and Development
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
– Recessive
 Trait is expressed when passed from
both parents
 Example: Tays-Sachs disorder and
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 7.1 DNA Molecule
In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of
sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the
genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Chromosomes
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Rod-shaped structures found in the
nucleus of each cell
• Are tightly wound strands of genes
• Egg and sperm carry 23 chromosomes
each
• Missing or extra chromosome can cause
mild to severe problems in
development
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Down syndrome is a form of developmental delay caused by an extra chromosome 21.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Chromosome Disorders
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Down Syndrome
– Extra chromosome in twenty-first pair
– Symptoms include almond-shaped,
wide-set eyes, intellectual disability
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Chromosome Disorders
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Klinefelter’s Syndrome
– Extra sex chromosome in the twentythird pair
– XXY
– Extra X produces male with reduced
masculine characteristics, enlarged
breasts, obesity
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Chromosome Disorders
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Turner’s Syndrome
– Twenty-third pair is missing an X
– Very short, infertile, and sexually
underdeveloped
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 7.2 Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU
This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their
offspring. (a) If only one parent carries the PKU gene, their children might be carriers, but will not have PKU.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 7.2 (continued) Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU
This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their
offspring. (b) Only if both parents are carriers of PKU will a child have the 1 in 4 possibility of having PKU.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Prenatal Development
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Ovum
– Female sex cell or egg
• Fertilization
– Union of the ovum and sperm
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Prenatal Development
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Zygote
– Cell resulting from the uniting of ovum
and sperm
• Mitosis
– Separation of chromosomes, DNA
duplication
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Conception and Twins
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Monozygotic twins
– Identical twins
– Zygote splits into two separate masses
of cells
– Each cell develops into separate embryo
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Conception and Twins
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Dizygotic twins
– Fraternal twins
– Two eggs fertilized by two different
sperm
– Two zygotes in the uterus at the same
time
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 7.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who
come from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Abby and Brittany Hensel
LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
• Conjoined twins
• Each have own heart, stomach and pair
of lungs
• Each controls one arm and one leg on
one side of the body
• Every action they undertake is a
miracle of coordination
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Abby and Brittany Hensel are conjoined twins who share one body from the waist down but are two distinctly
different individuals.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Periods of Pregnancy
LO 7.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
• Germinal period
– First two weeks after fertilization
– Zygote implants in the lining of the
uterus
– Stem cells
 Stay in immature state until needed to
produce more cells
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The three periods of pregnancy are the germinal period, lasting about two weeks, the embryonic period, from
about two to eight weeks, and fetal period, which lasts from eight weeks until the end of pregnancy.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Periods of Pregnancy
LO 7.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
• Embryonic period
– Two to eight weeks after fertilization
– Major organs and structures of
organism develop
– Critical periods
 Environmental influences can impact
development
– Teratogen
 Any factor that can cause a birth defect
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Periods of Pregnancy
LO 7.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
• Embryonic period
– Physical / structural problems can occur
with the central nervous system, eyes,
teeth and roof of the mouth
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The three periods of pregnancy are the germinal period, lasting about two weeks, the embryonic period, from
about two to eight weeks, and fetal period, which lasts from eight weeks until the end of pregnancy.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Table 7.2
Common Teratogens
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Periods of Pregnancy
LO 7.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
• Fetal period
– Eight weeks after conception until the
birth of the child
– Organs continue to develop and become
functional
– Baby is born after 38 weeks
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The three periods of pregnancy are the germinal period, lasting about two weeks, the embryonic period, from
about two to eight weeks, and fetal period, which lasts from eight weeks until the end of pregnancy.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Miscarriage
LO 7.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
• Usually occurs in the first three months
– Organs are forming, becoming
functional
• 15 to 20 percent of all pregnancies end
in miscarriage
• Most likely caused by a genetic defect
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
This pregnant woman is getting a sonogram. Sonograms allow doctors to see any physical deformities and make
accurate measurements of gestational age without risk to the mother or the fetus.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Physical Development in Infancy and
Childhood
LO 7.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
• Reflexes
– Innate (existing from birth) involuntary
behavior patterns
– Include sucking, rooting, Moro (startle),
grasping, Babinski.
• Taste and touch are well developed at
birth
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Physical Development in Infancy and
Childhood
LO 7.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
• Vision
– Rods are fairly well developed at birth
– Cones take another six months
• Gross and fine motor skills develop at a
fast pace during infancy and early
childhood
• By age one, infant has tripled in weight
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Figure 7.4 Five Infant Reflexes
Shown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when
you touch a baby's cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 7.4 (continued) Five Infant Reflexes
(d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant's
nervous system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological
problem.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 7.5 Six Motor Milestones
Shown here are (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with
support—4 to 6 months.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 7.5 (continued) Six Motor Milestones
Shown here are (d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to
18 months. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its
body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles
and the much later development of control of the legs and feet.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Cognitive Development
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Development of thinking, problemsolving, and memory
• Scheme
– Mental concept formed through
experiences with objects and events
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Children process new experiences
through two processes
• Assimilation
– Children first try to understand new
things in terms of schemes they already
possess
• Accommodation
– Altering or adjusting old schemes to fit
new information and experiences
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Sensorimotor stage
– Piaget’s first stage of cognitive
development
– Infant uses senses and motor abilities to
interact with objects in the environment
– Object permanence
 The knowledge that an object exists even
when it is not in sight
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Preoperational stage
– Second stage of cognitive development
– Child uses language as a means of
exploring the world
 Egocentrism
– Inability to see the world through anyone
else’s eyes
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Preoperational stage
– Child uses language as a means of
exploring the world
 Centration
– Child to focus only on one feature of
object
– Ignores other features
 Conservation
– Changing the appearance of an object
does not change the object’s nature
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Preoperational stage
– Child uses language as a means of
exploring the world
 Irreversibility
– Inability to mentally reverse an action
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Figure 7.6 Conservation Experiment
A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and
shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet
conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass
now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the
pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume
that there are actually more pennies in that line.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Concrete operations
– Ages 7-12
– Capable of conservation and reversible
thinking
– Begins to think more logically about
beliefs
– Concrete concepts
 Are about objects, written rules, and real
things
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Formal operations
– Ages 12-adult
– Adolescent becomes capable of abstract
thinking
– Only 35 percent of all college students
reach formal operations
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Table 7.3
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
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Vygotsky’s Theory
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Scaffolding
– Skilled learner gives help to a less
skilled learner
– Reducing the amount of help as the less
skilled learner becomes more capable
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
– Difference between what a child can do
alone and what that child can do with
the help of a teacher
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
This boy is helping his younger sister learn to read a book. Vygotsky's view of cognitive development states that
the help of skilled others aids in making cognitive advances such as this one.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Language Development
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Chomsky
– LAD (language acquisition device)
 Innate “program” that contained a
schema for human language
 Child matches language heard against
this schema
• Child-directed speech
– Higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song
speech patterns
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stages of Language Development
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
•
•
•
•
•
Cooing
Babbling
One-word speech (holophrases)
Telegraphic speech
Whole sentences
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
This infant has already learned some of the basics of language, including the use of gestures to indicate meaning
and enhance communication.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Autism Spectrum Disorder
LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• Causes problems in thinking, feeling,
language, social skills used to relate to
others
• Studies consistently fail to show link
between MMR vaccine and autism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
One of the most important things parents can do for the continued health and safety of their infant is to have the
baby immunized, following an approved schedule for each type of vaccine. Immunizations today are safe and
effective and prevent dangerous and often deadly childhood diseases, such as rubella.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Temperament
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• Behavioral characteristics that are fairly
well established at birth
– Easy
 Regular, adaptable, and happy
– Difficult
 Irregular in schedule, unhappy with
change, loud
– Slow-to-warm up
 Quieter, need to adjust gradually to
change
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Attachment
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• An emotional bond between an infant
and caregiver
– Secure
 Willing to explore, upset when mother
departs but easily soothed upon her
return
– Avoidant
 Unattached; explore without “touching
base”
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Attachment
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• An emotional bond between an infant
and caregiver
– Ambivalent
 Insecurely attached; upset when mother
leaves, angry upon her return
– Disorganized-disoriented
 Insecure attachment, fearful, dazed,
depressed
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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This toddler shows reluctance to explore her environment, instead clinging to her father's leg. Such clinging
behavior, if common, can be a sign of an ambivalent attachment.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Harlow and Contact Comfort
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• Regardless of which surrogate was
feeding, monkeys spent more time with
soft, cloth-covered surrogate
• Demonstrated importance of contact
comfort in attachment
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The wire surrogate “mother” provides the food for this infant Rhesus monkey. But the infant spends all its time
with the soft, cloth-covered surrogate. According to Harlow, this demonstrates the importance of contact comfort
in attachment.
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Erikson’s Theory
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• Trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst
• Felt social interactions were more
important in development
• Dismissed Freud’s emphasis on sexual
development
• Focused infant and child’s relationship
to significant others in the immediate
surroundings—parents and then later
teachers and even peers
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Table 7.4 Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of
Development
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Table 7.4 (continued)
Development
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Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of
Gender Role Development
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• Gender
– Behavior associated with being male or
female
• Gender roles
– Culture’s expectations for behavior
associated with a particular gender
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Gender Role Development
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• Gender identity
– Perception of one’s gender
– Behavior that is associated with that
gender
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Theories of Gender Role Development
LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
• Social learning theory
– Attributes gender role development to
observation and imitation of models
• Gender schema theory
– Combines social learning with cognitive
development
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Puberty and Adolescence
LO 7.8 How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and
adolescent’s search for identity
• Adolescence
– The period of life from about age 13 to
the early twenties
– Person is no longer physically a child
– Not yet an independent, self-supporting
adult
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Puberty and Adolescence
LO 7.8 How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and
adolescent’s search for identity
• Puberty
– Physical changes in body
– Sexual development reaches its peak
– Lasts roughly four years
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Egocentric Thinking
LO 7.8 How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and
adolescent’s search for identity
• Personal fable
– Adolescent believes he/she is unique
– Protected from harm
• Imaginary audience
– Adolescent believes others are just as
concerned about his/her thoughts and
characteristics as much as they,
themselves, are
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Development of Morality
LO 7.8 How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and
adolescent’s search for identity
• Preconventional morality
– First level of Kohlberg’s stages
– Child’s behavior is governed by the
consequences of the behavior
• Conventional morality
– Second level of Kohlberg’s stages
– Behavior is governed by conforming to
the society’s norms of behavior
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Development of Morality
LO 7.8 How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and
adolescent’s search for identity
• Postconventional morality
– Third level of Kohlberg’s stages
– Behavior is governed by moral
principles decided on by the individual
– May be in disagreement with accepted
social norms
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Figure 8.8 Example of a Moral Dilemma
Source: Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379.
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Table 7.5
Kohlberg's Three Levels of Morality
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Erikson’s Identity Versus Role Confusion
LO 7.8 How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and
adolescent’s search for identity
• Adolescent must choose from among
options for values in life and beliefs
– Political issues, career options, marriage
• Develops a consistent sense of self
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Actresses Lindsay Lohan, Amanda Seyfried, Lacey Chabert, and Rachel McAdams on the set of Mark S. Waters’s
comedy movie Mean Girls. This movie portrays the ins and outs of peer pressure and the desire to fit in that
many adolescents face.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Adulthood
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Begins in early twenties
• Stages include young adulthood, middle
adulthood, and late adulthood
– Climacteric
 Physical decline in the reproductive
system of women
 Ends at about age 50
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Adulthood
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Stages include young adulthood, middle
adulthood, and late adulthood
– Menopause
 Cessation of ovulation and menstrual
cycles
 End of woman’s reproductive capability
– Andropause
 Gradual change in sexual hormones,
reproductive system of males
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Adulthood
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Increase in health problems, decrease
in reaction time for both sexes
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Cognitive Development
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Intellectual abilities do not decline
noticeably
• Speed of processing (reaction time)
does slow
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Cognitive Development
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Memory
– Issues noted in middle age
– Difficulty in retrieval
 Most likely caused by stress and amount
of information middle years adult must
try to keep straight
– Mental challenges and social activities
reduce the likelihood of decline
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
This middle-aged woman works on a crossword puzzle. Mental exercises such as this are one way to keep the
brain healthy and fit. What might be some other ways to exercise one’s brain?
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychosocial Development
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Intimacy
– Emotional and psychological closeness
– Based on ability to trust, share
– Still maintain a sense of self
• Generativity
– Providing guidance to the next
generation
– Contributing through career or volunteer
work
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychosocial Development
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Integrity
– Sense of wholeness
– Comes from having lived a full life
– Ability to let go of regrets
– Final completion of the ego
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Parenting Styles
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Authoritarian
– Concerned with rules
– Stern, rigid, demanding
• Permissive
– Few demands on children
 Permissive neglectful
 Permissive indulgent
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Parenting Styles
LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• Authoritative
– Firm limits with love, warmth, affection,
respect
– Willing to listen to child’s point of view
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Table 7.6
Stages
Erikson's Psychosocial Adolescent and Adult
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Theories of Aging
LO 7.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
• Cellular clock theory
– Cells only have so many times that they
can reproduce
– Limit reached, damaged cells
accumulate
• Wear-and-tear theory
– Repeated use and abuse of body’s
tissues
– Unable to repair all the damage
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Theories of Aging
LO 7.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
• Free radical theory
– Oxygen molecules with an unstable
electron move around the cell
– Damages cell structures as they go
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stages of Death and Dying
LO 7.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
– Based on interviews conducted with
dying
• Five Stages:
– Denial
– Anger
– Bargaining
– Depression
– Acceptance
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
One way to age successfully and maintain psychological health is to remain active and involved in life. This
woman is volunteering in a grade school classroom as a teacher's aide. This not only allows her to feel useful but
also helps her to stay mentally alert and socially involved.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Cross Cultural Views on Death
LO 7.11 How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects adults
• Hinduism
– Dead’s soul reincarnated at higher or
lower level of status
– Depends on how person lived his or her
life
• Northern Cheyenne tribe
– Death considered only the end of the
physical body
– Self and one’s Cheyenne nature persist
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White