Figure 50.0 Earthrise
Figure 50.0x Earth from the moon
Figure 50.1 Distribution and abundance of the red kangaroo in Australia, based on aerial surveys
Figure 50.x1 Patterns of distribution in the biosphere
Figure 50.2 Sample questions at different levels of ecology
Figure 50.3 Rachel Carson
Figure 50.4 Biogeographic realms
Figure 50.5 Flowchart of factors limiting geographic distribution
Figure 50.6 Set of transplant experiments for a hypothetical species
Figure 50.7 Spread of the African honeybee in the Americas since 1956
Figure 50.8 Expansion of the geographic range of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) since its
discovery near Detroit in 1988
Figure 50.9 Predator-removal experiments
Figure 50.15 Lake stratification and seasonal turnover (Layer 1)
Figure 50.15 Lake stratification and seasonal turnover (Layer 2)
Figure 50.15 Lake stratification and seasonal turnover (Layer 3)
Figure 50.15 Lake stratification and seasonal turnover (Layer 4)
Figure 50.16 Current geographic range and predicted future range for the American beech (Fagus grandifolia)
under two climate-change scenarios
Figure 50.17 The distribution of major aquatic biomes
Figure 50.18 Zonation in a lake
Figure 50.19 Freshwater biomes: Oligotrophic lake (left), eutrophic lake (top right), stream flowing into a river
(bottom right)
Figure 50.20 Damming the Columbia River Basin
Figure 50.21 Wetlands (top) and estuaries (bottom)
Figure 50.22 Zonation in the marine environment
Figure 50.23 Examples of marine biomes
Figure 50.23cx Black smoker
Figure 50.14 How mountains affect rainfall
Figure 50.11 Solar radiation and latitude
Figure 50.12 What causes the seasons?
Figure 50.13 Global air circulation, precipitation, and winds
Figure 50.24 The distribution of major terrestrial biomes
Figure 50.10 A climograph for some major kinds of ecosystems (biomes) in North America
Figure 50.25a Tropical forests
Figure 50.25b Savanna
Figure 50.25bx Savanna
Figure 50.25c Deserts
Figure 50.25d Chaparral
Figure 50.25dx Chaparral
Figure 50.25e Temperate grassland
Figure 20.25f Temperate deciduous forest
Figure 20.25g Coniferous forests
Figure 20.25h Tundra
Figure 50.26 A hierarchy of scales for analyzing the geographic distribution of the moss Tetraphis
Figure 50.27 Most species have small geographic ranges
Figure 51.0 Warbler
Figure 51.x1 Parrot preening
Figure 51.1 Genetic and environmental components of behavior: a case study
Figure 51.2 Niko Tinbergen’s experiments on the digger wasp’s nest-locating behavior
Figure 51.3 Classic demonstration of innate behavior
Figure 51.4 Mayflies laying eggs on human-made surfaces
Figure 51.5 The repertoire of a songbird
Figure 51.6 Female warblers prefer males with large song repertoires
Figure 51.7 Feeding by young bluegill sunfish
Figure 51.8 Vervet monkeys learn correct use of alarm calls
Figure 51.9 Imprinting: Konrad Lorenz with imprinted geese
Figure 51.9x Geese imprinting
Figure 51.10 Two kinds of bird-song development
Figure 51.11 Operant conditioning
Figure 51.12 Play behavior: Cheetahs and polar bears
Figure 51.13 Raven problem solving
Figure 51.13x Chimps making tools
Figure 51.14a Electronic surveillance of honeybees
Figure 51.14b Electronic surveillance of honeybees
Figure 51.15 Migration routes of the golden plover
Figure 51.15x Golden plover
Figure 51.16 Orientation versus navigation in juvenile and adult starlings
Figure 51.17 Injury-feigning display
Figure 51.18 Cooperative prey capture
Figure 51.19 Ritual wrestling by rattlesnakes
Figure 51.20 Reconciliation in chimpanzees
Figure 51.21 Territories: gannets nesting
Figure 51.22 Staking out territory with chemical markers
Figure 51.x2 Territoriality: mountain goats and stallions
Figure 51.23 Courtship behavior in the three-spined stickleback
Figure 51.24 Male stalk-eyed fly
Figure 51.25 Paternal care by a sea spider
Figure 51.26 Fire ants following a pheromone trail
Figure 51.27 Communication in bees: one hypothesis
Figure 51.28 Altruistic behavior in the Belding ground squirrel
Figure 51.29 Two species of colonial mammals: naked mole rats and common mole rat
Figure 51.30 The coefficient of relatedness between siblings is 0.5
Figure 51.31 Kin selection and altruism in the Belding ground squirrel
Figure 51.32 Both genes and culture build human nature
Figure 52.0 Monarch butterflies
Figure 52.0x Monarch butterfly migration
Figure 52.1 Aerial census for African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the Serengeti of East Africa
Figure 52.2 Patterns of dispersion within a population’s geographic range
Figure 52.2ax2 Clumped dispersion: buffalo, swans, fish, lupine
Table 52.1 Life Table for Belding Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beldini) at Tioga Pass, in the Sierra Nevada
Mountains of California
Table 52.2 Reproductive Table for Belding Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi) at Tioga Pass, in the
Sierra Nevada Mountains of California
Figure 52.3 Idealized survivorship curves
Figure 52.4 An example of big-bang reproduction: Agave (century plant)
Figure 52.5 Cost of reproduction in female red deer on the island of Rhum, in Scotland
Figure 52.6 Probability of survival over the following year for European kestrels after raising a modified brood
Figure 52.7 Variation in seed crop size in plants: Dandelion and coconut palm
Figure 52.8 Population growth predicted by the exponential model
Figure 52.9 Example of exponential population growth in nature
Figure 52.10 Reduction of population growth rate with increasing population size (N)
Table 52.3 A Hypothetical Example of Logistic Population Growth, Where K=1,000 and rmax=0.05 per
Individual per Year
Figure 52.11 Population growth predicted by the logistic model
Figure 52.12 How well do these populations fit the logistic population growth model?
Figure 52.13 Graphic model showing how equilibrium may be determined for population density
Figure 52.14 Decreased fecundity at high population densities
Figure 52.15 Decreased survivorship at high population densities
Figure 52.16 Decline in the breeding population of the northern pintail (Anas actua) from 1955 to 1998
Figure 52.17 Long-term study of the moose (Alces alces) population of Isle Royale, Michigan
Figure 52.18 Extreme population fluctuations
Figure 52.19 Population cycles in the snowshoe hare and lynx
Figure 52.20 Human population growth
Figure 52.21 Demographic transition in Sweden and Mexico, 1750-1997
Figure 52.22 Age-structure pyramids for the human population of Kenya (growing at 2.1% per year), the
United States (growing at 0.6% per year), and Italy (zero growth) for 1995
Figure 52.23 Ecological footprint in relation to available ecological capacity
Figure 53.0 Lion with kill in a grassland community
Figure 53.1 Testing the individualistic and interactive hypotheses of communities
Table 53.1 Interspecific Interactions
Figure 53.2 Testing a competitive exclusion hypothesis in the field
Figure 53.3a Resource partitioning in a group of lizards
Figure 53.3bc Anolis distichus (left) and Anolis insolitus (right)
Figure 53.4 Character displacement: circumstantial evidence for competition in nature
Figure 53.5 Camouflage: Poor-will (left), lizard (right)
Figure 53.6 Aposematic (warning) coloration in a poisonous blue frog
Figure 53.x1 Deceptive coloration: moth with "eyeballs"
Figure 53.7 Batesian mimicry
Figure 53.8 Müllerian mimicry: Cuckoo bee (left), yellow jacket (right)
Figure 53.x2 Parasitic behavior: A female Nasonia vitripennis laying a clutch of eggs into the pupa of a blowfly
(Phormia regina)
Figure 53.9 Mutualism between acacia trees and ants
Figure 53.x3 Commensalism between a bird and mammal
Figure 53.10 Examples of terrestrial and marine food chains
Figure 53.11 An antarctic marine food web
Figure 53.12 Partial food web for the Chesapeake Bay estuary on the U.S. Atlantic coast
Figure 53.13 Test of the energetic hypothesis for the restriction on food chain length
Figure 53.14a Testing a keystone predator hypothesis
Figure 53.14b Testing a keystone predator hypothesis
Figure 53.15 Sea otters as keystone predators in the North Pacific
Unnumbered Figure (page 1186) Biomanipulation diagram
Figure 53.16 Routine disturbance in a grassland community
Figure 53.17 Storm disturbance to coral reef communities
Figure 53.17 Storm disturbance to coral reef communities: Heron Island Reef in Australia
Figure 53.x4 Environmental patchiness caused by small-scale disturbances: A fallen tree
Figure 53.18 Patchiness and recovery following a large-scale disturbance
Figure 53.18x1 Large-scale disturbance: Mount St. Helens
Figure 53.18x2 Forest fire
Figure 53.19 A glacial retreat in southeastern Alaska
Table 53.2 The Pattern of Succession on Moraines in Glacier Bay
Figure 53.20 Change in soil nitrogen concentration during succession after glacial retreat in Glacier Bay, Alaska
Figure 53.20 Alders and cottonwoods covering the hillsides
Figure 53.20 Spruce coming into the alder and cottonwood forest
Figure 53.20 Spruce and hemlock forest
Figure 54.0 A terrarium, an example of an ecosystem
Figure 54.1 An overview of ecosystem dynamics
Figure 54.2 Fungi decomposing a log
Figure 54.3 Primary production of different ecosystems
Figure 54.4 Regional annual net primary production for Earth
Figure 54.5 Vertical distribution of temperature, nutrients, and production in the upper layer of the central
North Pacific during summer
Figure 54.6 Experiments on nutrient limitations to phytoplankton production in coastal waters of Long Island
Table 54.1 Nutrient Enrichment Experiments for Sargasso Sea Samples
Figure 54.7 Remote sensing of primary production in oceans
Figure 54.8 The experimental eutrophication of a lake
Figure 54.9 Nutrient addition experiments in a Hudson Bay salt marsh
Figure 54.10 Energy partitioning within a link of the food chain
Figure 54.11 An idealized pyramid of net production
Figure 54.12 Pyramids of biomass (standing crop)
Figure 54.13 A pyramid of numbers
Figure 54.14 Food energy available to the human population at different trophic levels
Figure 54.15 A general model of nutrient cycling
Figure 54.16 The water cycle
Figure 54.17 The carbon cycle
Figure 54.18 The nitrogen cycle
Figure 54.19 The phosphorous cycle
Figure 54.20 Review: Generalized scheme for biogeochemical cycles
Figure 54.21 Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest: Concrete dams (left), logged watersheds (right)
Figure 54.21c Nutrient cycling in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest: an example of long-term ecological
research
Figure 54.22 Agricultural impact on soil nutrients
Figure 54.23a Distribution of acid precipitation in North America and Europe
Figure 54.23b U.S. map profiling pH averages for precipitation in 1999
Figure 54.24 We’ve changed our tune
Figure 54.25 Biological magnification of DDT in a food chain
Figure 54.26 The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and average temperatures from 1958 to 2000
Figure 54.27a Erosion of Earth’s ozone shield: The ozone hole over the Antarctic
Figure 54.27b Erosion of Earth’s ozone shield: Thickness of the ozone layer
Figure 55.0 Deforestation of tropical forests
Figure 55.00x Deforestation in the United States
Figure 55.1 Three levels of biodiversity
Figure 55.2 A hundred heartbeats from extinction: Philippine eagle (left), Chinese river dolphin (right)
Figure 55.3 The rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus): a plant that saves lives
Figure 55.4 What scientists learned about ecosystem services from the world’s largest terrarium
Figure 55.5 Fragmentation of a forest ecosystem
Figure 55.6 The history of habitat reduction and fragmentation in a Wisconsin forest
Figure 55.7 Disastrous species introductions: Nile perch (top left), brown tree snake (top right), Argentine ants
(bottom left), seaweed Caulerpa (bottom right)
Figure 55.7x Zebra mussels
Figure 55.8 The great auk (Pinguinis impennis)
Figure 55.9 North Atlantic bluefin tuna auctioned in a Japanese fish market
Figure 55.10 The extinction vortex of the small-population approach
Figure 55.11 The decline of the greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) in central Illinois from 1970 to 1997
Figure 55.12 Two species of edible plants whose persistence is threatened by habitat loss and overharvesting
Figure 55.13 Long-term monitoring of a grizzly bear population
Figure 55.14 Habitat requirements of the red-cockaded woodpecker
Figure 55.15 Edges between ecosystems
Figure 55.16 An artificial corridor
Figure 55.17 Some biodiversity hot spots
Figure 55.18 The legal and biotic boundaries for grizzly bears in Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks
Figure 55.19 Zoned reserves in Costa Rica
Figure 55.19 Local schoolchildren marvel at the diversity of life in one of Costa Rica's reserves
Figure 55.20b An endangered, endemic species in its unique habitat
Figure 55.21 The size-time relationship for community recovery from natural (salmon-colored) and humancaused (white) disasters
Figure 55.22 Restoration of degraded roadsides in the tropics
Figure 55.23 Biophilia, past and present
Figure 55.15 Edges between ecosystems
Figure 55.16 An artificial corridor
Figure 55.17 Some biodiversity hot spots
Figure 55.18 The legal and biotic boundaries for grizzly bears in Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks
Figure 55.19 Zoned reserves in Costa Rica
Figure 55.19 Local schoolchildren marvel at the diversity of life in one of Costa Rica's reserves
Figure 55.20b An endangered, endemic species in its unique habitat
Figure 55.21 The size-time relationship for community recovery from natural (salmon-colored) and humancaused (white) disasters
Figure 55.22 Restoration of degraded roadsides in the tropics
Figure 55.23 Biophilia, past and present