Chapter 15
Physical and Cognitive Development
in Late Adulthood
PowerPoints developed by Nicholas Greco IV,
College of Lake County, Grayslake, IL
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Life Span and Life Expectancy
 Life span -- maximum number of years an
individual can live
120–125 years; remains unchanged
 Life expectancy -- number of years that
the average person, born in a particular
year, will probably live
has increased 31 years since 1900
average U.S. life expectancy = 78 years
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Differences in Life Expectancy
 International differences due to health
conditions, medical care, etc.
 Sex differences
women outlive males an average of 5 years
due to health attitudes, habits, lifestyles,
occupation
biological factors -- females outlive males
across species
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Centenarians
 Increasing numbers
15,000 in 1980
55,000 in 2008
 Genes play a role
 Also family history, health, exercise,
education, personality, and lifestyle
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Biological Theories of Aging
 Evolutionary Theory of Aging
Natural selection has not eliminated many
harmful conditions and nonadaptive
characteristics in older adults
Natural selection is linked to reproductive
fitness
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Biological Theories of Aging
 Cellular Clock Theory
as we age, cells become less capable of
dividing
telomeres -- DNA sequences that cap
chromosomes
as cells divide, telomeres become shorter and
eventually cells can no longer divide
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Biological Theories of Aging
 Free Radical Theory -- people age
because as cells metabolize energy, the
by-products include unstable oxygen
molecules known as free radicals
free radicals damage DNA
resulting damage can lead to range of
disorders such as cancer and arthritis
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Biological Theories of Aging
 Hormonal Stress Theory -- aging in the
body’s hormone system can lower
resistance to stress and increase
likelihood of disease
prolonged elevation of stress-related
hormones associated with risk of chronic
disease
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The Aging and Adaptive Brain
 The brain loses volume and weight
 Some areas of brain shrink more than
others
 As brain ages, it adapts
 Lack of dendrite growth may be lack of
stimulation and activity in brain
 Using both hemispheres may improve
cognitive functioning
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Physical Development
 Inevitable if we live to old age
Wrinkles and age spots
Loss of height and weight
Slower movements
Exercise and appropriate weight lifting may
help to reduce the decrease in muscle mass
and may improve motor functions
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Sensory Development
 Vision
visual acuity, color vision, and depth
perception decline
cataracts -- thickening of lens
glaucoma -- optic nerve damaged by
pressure from fluid buildup
macular degeneration -- deterioration of
retina
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Sensory Development
 Hearing
degeneration of cochlea
 Smell and taste
most older adults lose some ability to taste
and/or smell
 Touch and pain
Changes in touch are not problematic
Decreased sensitivity to pain may mask injury
and illness
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The Circulatory System and
Lungs
 Blood pressure consistently over 120/80
should be treated to reduce threat of heart
attack, stroke, or kidney disease
 Lung capacity drops 40 percent between
20 and 80 years even without disease
lungs lose elasticity, chest shrinks, and
diaphragm weakens
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Sexuality
 Sexuality can be life-long
 Aging changes sexual performance,
especially in males
orgasm less frequent
erectile dysfunction
education may help deal with these issues
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Health Problems
 As we age, probability of illness increases
 Arthritis and hypertension are most
common chronic disorders
 Low income is strongly related to health
problems in late adulthood
Approximately three times as many poor as
non-poor older adults report that chronic
disorders limit their activities
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Causes of Death in Older
Adults
 Nearly 60 percent of U.S. adults aged 65–
74 die of cancer or cardiovascular disease
 Cancer is now the leading cause of death
 In the 75–84 and 85-and-over age groups,
cardiovascular disease is still the leading
cause of death
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Arthritis
 Arthritis -- inflammation of the joints,
accompanied by pain, stiffness, and
movement problems
 Incurable disorder that affects hips, knees,
ankles, fingers, and vertebrae
 Symptoms reduced by drugs, range-ofmotion exercises, weight reduction, and
joint replacement
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Osteoporosis
 Osteoporosis -- extensive loss of bone
tissue
 Women are especially vulnerable; it is the
leading cause of broken bones in women
 More common in non-Latina White, thin,
and small-framed women
 Related to deficiencies in calcium, vitamin
D, estrogen, and lack of exercise
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Accidents
 Accidents are the sixth-leading cause of
death among older adults
 Falls are the leading cause of injury
deaths in those 65 and older
 Participation in an exercise class once a
week for three years reduced the fall risk
and the number of falling incidents
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Exercise
 Gerontologists recommend strength
training in addition to aerobic activity for
older adults
 Weightlifting can preserve muscle mass
 Exercise helps people maintain
independence and prevents
institutionalization
 Increases longevity
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Nutrition and Weight
 Leaner adults live longer, healthier lives
 Calorie restriction works to increase life
span of animals but human connection is
not specifically known
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Health Treatment
 Quality of health treatment for older adults
needs improvement
 Geriatric nurses can be helpful
 Quality of nursing homes varies and costs
are escalating
 Concerns focus on patient’s medical care,
right to privacy, access to medical
information, safety and lifestyle freedom
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Alternatives to Nursing
Home Care
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Home health care
Day-care centers
Preventive medicine clinics
Alternatives are potentially less expensive
and less likely to depersonalize the patient
 Patients perform better cognitively
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Multidimensionality and
Multidirectionality
 Speed of processing information declines
in late adulthood
 Decline in speed is likely due to decline in
functioning of brain and central nervous
system
 Health and exercise may be influencing
factors
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Attention
 Selective attention -- focusing on a specific
aspect of experience that is relevant while
ignoring others that are irrelevant
 Divided attention -- concentrating on more
than one activity at the same time
 Sustained attention -- state of readiness to
detect and respond to small changes
occurring at random times in the
environment
also known as vigilance
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Memory
 Episodic memory -- retention of
information about the where and when of
life’s happenings
 Semantic memory -- person’s knowledge
about the world
fields of expertise; general academic
knowledge; everyday knowledge of words,
places, and things
 Both show declines in older adults
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Memory
 Working memory -- closely linked to shortterm memory but emphasizes memory as
a place for mental work
 Perceptual speed -- amount of time it
takes to perform simple perceptual-motor
tasks
 Decline in perceptual speed in older adults
is linked to decline in working memory
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Memory
 Explicit memory -- memory of facts and
experiences that individuals consciously
know and can state
also known as declarative memory
 Implicit memory -- memory without
conscious recollection; it involves skills
and routine procedures that are
automatically performed
 Implicit memory is less likely to be
adversely affected by aging
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Wisdom
 Wisdom -- expert knowledge about the
practical aspects of life that permits
excellent judgment about important
matters
practical knowledge
development of coping skills
 High levels of wisdom are rare
 Factors other than age are critical for
wisdom to develop
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Training Cognitive Skills
 Training can improve the cognitive skills of
many older adults
 There is some loss of plasticity in late
adulthood, especially in those older than
85 years
 Cognitive vitality can be improved with
training
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Cognitive Neuroscience and
Aging
 Cognitive neuroscience -- field of study
that links brain and cognitive functioning
 Changes in brain can influence cognitive
functioning, and changes in cognitive
functioning can change brain
 Lack of use of working memory may cause
neural connections in prefrontal lobes to
atrophy
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Work
 Older adults increasingly work part-time in
retirement
 Probability of employment also was
positively correlated with educational
attainment and being married to a working
wife
 Older workers have a lower rate of
absenteeism, fewer accidents, and
increased job satisfaction
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Adjustment to Retirement
 Best adjustment for those who are
healthy
have adequate income
active
educated
have an extended social network
satisfied with life before retirement
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Depression
 Major depression -- mood disorder in
which the individual is deeply unhappy,
demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored
 Predictors of depression: earlier
symptoms, poor health, death of a spouse,
and low social support
Insomnia is a risk factor for depression in
older adults
 Depression is a treatable condition
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Dementia
 Dementia -- global term for any
neurological disorder in which the primary
symptoms involve a deterioration of
mental functioning
 Loss of ability to care for themselves and
recognize familiar surroundings and
people
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Alzheimer’s Disease
 Alzheimer’s Disease -- a progressive,
irreversible brain disorder characterized by
gradual deterioration of memory,
reasoning, language, and eventually
physical function
Early- (younger than 65) and late-onset (older
than 65)
Formation of amyloid plaques -- deposits of
protein accumulating in blood vessels
Neurofibrillary tangles -- twisted fibers that
build up in neurons
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Causes of Alzheimer’s
Disease
 No certain scientific proof of causes
Age is a risk factor
Genetic links seem to exist
Lifestyle factors
Lack of exercise
 Mild cognitive impairment represents a
transitional state between the cognitive
changes of normal aging and very early
Alzheimer disease and dementias
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Estimated Risks for Developing Alzheimer
Disease at Different Ages for Women and
Men
 INSERT FIGURE 15.7 HERE
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Care for Individuals with
Alzheimer’s Disease
 Family members and other care providers
can become physically and emotionally
drained
 Need for respite care -- services that
provide temporary relief to caregivers
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Parkinson’s Disease
 Parkinson’s disease -- a chronic,
progressive disease characterized by
muscle tremors, slowing of movement,
and partial facial paralysis
 Onset is triggered by degeneration of
neurons that produce dopamine in the
brain
 Dopamine -- neurotransmitter necessary
for normal brain functioning
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