• Cognitive Dissonance
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Persuasion - Cognitive Dissonance Theory
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For example, a person who is addicted to
smoking cigarettes but also suspects it
could be detrimental to his health suffers
from cognitive dissonance.
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Persuasion - Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The most famous example of how
Cognitive Dissonance can be used for
persuasion comes from Festinger and
Carlsmith’s 1959 experiment in which
participants were asked to complete a very
dull task for an hour
1
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Interpersonal communication - Cognitive dissonance theory
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The theory of cognitive dissonance, part of
the Cybernetic Tradition, explains how
humans are consistency seekers and attempt
to reduce their dissonance, or discomfort, in
new situations.Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of
cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press. The theory was developed in
the 1950s by Leon Festinger.Donsbach,
Wolfgang (2008). Cognitive Dissonance
Theory. The International Encyclopedia of
Communication. Donsbach, Wolfgang (ed).
Blackwell Publishing.
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Interpersonal communication - Cognitive dissonance theory
1
For this reason, cognitive dissonance
is considered a drive state that
encourages motivation to achieve
consonance and reduce dissonance.
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Interpersonal communication - Cognitive dissonance theory
1
An example of cognitive dissonance
would be if someone holds the belief
that maintaining a healthy lifestyle is
important, but they don’t regularly
work out or eat healthy, they may
experience dissonance between their
beliefs and their actions
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Choice-supportive bias - Relation to cognitive dissonance
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The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes
that people have a motivational drive to
reduce Cognitive dissonance|dissonance.
Choice-supportive bias is potentially related
to the aspect of cognitive dissonance
explored by Jack Brehm (1956) as
postdecisional dissonance. Within the context
of cognitive dissonance, choice-supportive
bias would be seen as reducing the conflict
between I prefer X and I have committed to Y.
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Persuade - Cognitive Dissonance Theory
1
For example, a person who is addicted to
smoking cigarettes but also suspects it
could be detrimental to his health suffers
from cognitive dissonance.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-cognitive-dissonance-toolkit.html
Persuade - Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The most famous example of how
Cognitive Dissonance can be used for
persuasion comes from Festinger and
Carlsmith’s 1959 experiment in which
participants were asked to complete a very
dull task for an hour
1
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Motivation - Cognitive dissonance theory
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Suggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive
dissonance occurs when an individual
experiences some degree of discomfort
resulting from an inconsistency between
two cognitions: their views on the world
around them, and their own personal
feelings and actions
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Motivation - Cognitive dissonance theory
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While not a theory of motivation, per se,
the theory of cognitive dissonance
proposes that people have a drive
theory|motivational drive to reduce
dissonance
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Cognitive dissonance
1
Cognitive dissonance
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Cognitive dissonance
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Leon Festinger's 'theory of cognitive
dissonance' focuses on how humans
strive for internal consistency. When
inconsistency (dissonance) is
experienced, individuals largely
become psychologically distressed.
His basic hypotheses are listed below:
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Cognitive dissonance - Magnitude of dissonance
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The pressure to reduce cognitive dissonance is
a function of the magnitude of said dissonance.
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Cognitive dissonance - Reducing cognitive dissonance
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Cognitive dissonance theory is founded
on the assumption that individuals seek
consistency between their expectations
and their reality. Because of this, people
engage in a process called dissonance
reduction to bring their cognitions and
actions in line with one another. This
creation of uniformity allows for a
lessening of psychological tension and
distress. According to Festinger,
dissonance reduction can be achieved in
three ways:
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Cognitive dissonance - Theory and research
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Most of the research on cognitive dissonance
takes the form of one of four major
paradigms. Important research generated by
the theory has been concerned with the
consequences of exposure to information
inconsistent with a prior belief, what happens
after individuals act in ways that are
inconsistent with their prior attitudes, what
happens after individuals make decisions,
and the effects of effort expenditure.
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Cognitive dissonance - Belief disconfirmation paradigm
If the dissonance is not reduced by
changing one's belief, the dissonance can
result in restoring consonance through
misperception, rejection or refutation of
the information, seeking support from
others who share the beliefs, and
attempting to persuade others.HarmonJones, Eddie, A Cognitive Dissonance
Theory Perspective on Persuasion, in The
Persuasion Handbook: Developments in
Theory and Practice, James Price Dillard,
Michael Pfau, eds
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Belief disconfirmation paradigm
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They faced acute cognitive dissonance:
had they been the victim of a hoax? Had
they donated their worldly possessions in
vain? Most members chose to believe
something less dissonant to resolve reality
not meeting their expectations: they
believed that the aliens had given Earth a
second chance, and the group was now
empowered to spread the word that earthspoiling must stop
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Cognitive dissonance - Induced-compliance paradigm
A 2012 study using a version of the
forbidden toy paradigm showed that
hearing music reduces the development of
cognitive dissonance
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Free-choice paradigm
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This can be explained in terms of
cognitive dissonance
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Cognitive dissonance - The Fox and the Grapes
A classic illustration of cognitive
dissonance is expressed in the fable The
Fox and the Grapes by Aesop (ca
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Other related phenomena
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Cognitive dissonance has also been demonstrated
to occur when people seek to:
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Cognitive dissonance - Other related phenomena
There are other ways that cognitive
dissonance is involved in shaping our
views about people, as well as our own
identities (as discussed more in the
sections below)
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Applications of research
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In addition to explaining certain counterintuitive human behaviour, the theory of
cognitive dissonance has practical
applications in several fields.
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Cognitive dissonance - Education
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Creating and resolving cognitive
dissonance can have a powerful
impact on students' motivation for
learning.Aronson, E
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Cognitive dissonance - Education
Psychologists have incorporated
cognitive dissonance into models of
basic processes of learning, notably
constructivism (learning
theory)|constructivist models
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Education
Meta-analysis|Meta-analytic methods
suggest that interventions that provoke
cognitive dissonance to achieve directed
conceptual change have been
demonstrated across numerous studies to
significantly increase learning in science
and reading.
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Cognitive dissonance - Therapy
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Cognitive dissonance:
50 years of a classic
theory
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Cognitive dissonance - Therapy
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/00221031(85)90012-5 Cognitive dissonance
and psychotherapy: The role of effort
justification in inducing weight loss.]
Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 21, 149 –160.
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Promoting healthy and pro-social behavior
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Other studies suggest that cognitive
dissonance can also be used to
encourage individuals to engage in
prosocial behaviour under various
contexts such as campaigning against
littering,Fried, C
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Cognitive dissonance - Marketing
Research and understanding of
cognitive dissonance in consumers
reveals potential for developing
marketing practices.
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Marketing
Cognitive dissonance is also useful to
explain and manage post-purchase
concerns. If a consumer feels that an
alternate purchase would have been
better it is likely he will not buy the
product again. To counter this marketers
have to convince the buyer constantly
that the product satisfies their need and
thereby help to reduce his cognitive
dissonance and ensure repurchase of the
same brand in the future.
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Social engineering
Exploitation of weaknesses caused by
inducing cognitive dissonance in targets is
one of the techniques used by
perpetrators.
1
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Cognitive dissonance - Challenges and alternative theories
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While cognitive dissonance theory
has been utilized in experiments and
is generally (although not entirely)
accepted by those in the psychology
field, there are alternative theories
that account for human attitudes and
behaviors.
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Cognitive dissonance - Self-perception theory (Bem)
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Daryl Bem was an early critic of
cognitive dissonance theory
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Cognitive dissonance - Self-perception theory (Bem)
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[http://dbem.ws/SP%20Theory%20Cogn
itive%20Dissonance.pdf Selfperception: An alternative
interpretation of cognitive dissonance
phenomena.] Psychological Review,
74(3), 183–200.
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Cognitive dissonance - Self-perception theory (Bem)
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This provides support for cognitive
dissonance theory and makes it
unlikely that self-perception by itself
can account for all the laboratory
findings.
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Cognitive dissonance - Self-perception theory (Bem)
1
Cognitive dissonance: Private ratiocination
or public spectacle? American
Psychologist, 26(8), 685–695
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Cognitive dissonance - Averse consequences vs. inconsistency (Cooper Fazio)
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[http://www.socialemotiveneuroscience.org
/pubs/hj_etal96.pdf Evidence that the
production of aversive consequences is
not necessary to create cognitive
dissonance.] Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 70(1), 5–16.
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Cognitive dissonance - Free-choice paradigm criticism (Chen et al.)
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[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1011879
108 Neural correlates of cognitive
dissonance and choice-induced
preference change.] Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.,
107(51), 22014-22019.Sharot, T.,
Velasquez, C
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Cognitive dissonance - Neuroscience findings
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[http://www.researchgate.net/public
ation/26817210_Neural_activity_predi
cts_attitude_change_in_cognitive_diss
onance/file/3deec51b8bf291652a.pdf
Neural activity predicts attitude
change in cognitive dissonance.]
Nature Neuroscience, 12(11), 1469–
1474.
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Cognitive dissonance - Neuroscience findings
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[http://courses.washington.edu/evpsych/E
gan%20Santos%20Bloom%20%20origins%20cog%20diss%20%20Psy%20Sci%202007.pdf The origins
of cognitive dissonance: Evidence from
children and monkeys] Psychological
Science, 18(11), 978-983.
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Cognitive dissonance - Modeling in neural networks
1
Neural network models of cognition have
provided the necessary framework to
integrate the empirical research done on
cognitive dissonance and attitudes into
one model of explanation of attitude
formation and change.Read, S.J.,
Vanman, E.J., Miller L.C
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Cognitive dissonance - Modeling in neural networks
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Various neural network models have
been developed to predict how
cognitive dissonance will influence an
individual's attitude and behavior.
These include:
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Leon Festinger - Cognitive dissonance
1
Festinger's seminal 1957 work integrated
existing research literature on influence
and social communication under his theory
of cognitive dissonance.Festinger, 1957
The theory was motivated by a study of
rumors immediately following a severe
earthquake in India in 1934
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Leon Festinger - Cognitive dissonance
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Carlsmith published their classic cognitive
dissonance experiment in 1959.Festinger
Carlsmith, 1959 In the experiment,
subjects were asked to perform an hour of
boring and monotonous tasks (i.e.,
repeatedly filling and emptying a tray with
12 spools and turning 48 square pegs in a
board clockwise)
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Human subject research - Cognitive Dissonance
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2007 Cognitive Dissonance, Fifty Years
of a Classic Theory, SAGE Publications
In 1959, Festinger and Carlsmith
devised a situation in which
participants would undergo excessively
tedious and monotonous tasks
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Rationalization (making excuses) - Cognitive dissonance
A rather different, but perhaps
complementary, approach to rationalization
comes from cognitive dissonance. 'In 1957.
Leon Festinger...argued that when people
become aware that their attitudes, thoughts,
and beliefs (cognitions) are inconsistent with
one another, this realization brings with it an
uncomfortable state of tension called
cognitive dissonance '.E. R. Smith and D. M.
Mackie, Social Psychology (Hove 2007) p.
277-8
1
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The Illuminatus! Trilogy - Cognitive dissonance
Those who experience cognitive
dissonance become either very flexible
and agnostic or very rigid and
schizophrenic
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Elliot Aronson - Cognitive dissonance
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A theory of cognitive
dissonance
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Buyer's remorse - Cognitive dissonance
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The phenomenon of buyer’s remorse
has been generally associated with
the psychological theory of cognitive
dissonance, a state of psychological
discomfort when at least two elements
of cognition are in opposition, and
which motivates the person to appease
it by changing how they think about
the situation
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Buyer's remorse - Cognitive dissonance
1
Low rewards matched with these three
conditions will most likely result in buyer’s
remorse via cognitive dissonance
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Buyer's remorse - Cognitive dissonance
In this extension of cognitive
dissonance, the duality of satisfaction
and intention are separate phenomena
within buyer’s remorse.
1
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Ben Franklin effect - Effect as an example of cognitive dissonance
1
This perception of Franklin has been cited
as an example within cognitive dissonance
theory, which says that people change
their attitudes or behavior to resolve
tensions, or dissonance, between their
thoughts, attitudes, and actions
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Self-justification - Cognitive dissonance: the engine that drives self-justification
1
The need to justify our actions and decisions,
especially the ones inconsistent with our
beliefs, comes from the unpleasant feeling
called cognitive dissonance.Festinger, L.
(1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Cognitive dissonance is a state of tension
that occurs whenever a person holds two
inconsistent cognitions. For example,
smoking will shorten the life which I wish to
live for as long as possible and yet I smoke
three packs a day.
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System justification - Cognitive dissonance theory
One of the most popular and well-known
social psychological theories, cognitive
dissonance|cognitive dissonance theory
explains that people have a need to maintain
cognitive consistency in order to retain a
positive self-image. System justification
theory builds off the cognitive dissonance
framework, in that it posits people will justify a
social system in order to retain a positive
image of that social system, which in turn
could actually cause more conflict and
dissonance within some people.
1
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Attitude change - Cognitive dissonance theory
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Cooper Fazio's (1984) have also added
that cognitive dissonance does not
arise from any simple cognitive
inconsistency, but rather results from
freely chosen behavior that may bring
about negative consequences.Cooper
J, Fazio RH
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Attitude change - Cognitive dissonance theory
1
Thus, attitude change is achieved when
individuals experience feelings of
uneasiness or guilt due to cognitive
dissonance, and actively reduce the
dissonance through changing their
attitude, beliefs, or behavior relating in
order to achieve consistency with the
inconsistent cognitions.
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Selective exposure theory - Cognitive dissonance theory
From a motivational account, the
cognitive dissonance theory suggests
that decision makers systematically
prefer supporting information in order
to reduce the aversive motivational
state of dissonance
1
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Selective exposure theory - Cognitive dissonance theory
2) When dissonance is present, in
addition to trying to reduce it, the
person will actively avoid situations
and information which would likely
increase the dissonance (Festinger,
1957).Festinger, L. (1957) A Theory of
Cognitive Dissonance, p. 3
1
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Selective exposure theory - Cognitive dissonance theory
1
Cognitive dissonance also occurs when
people feel an attachment to and
responsibility for a decision, position or
behavior
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Selective exposure theory - Cognitive dissonance theory
1
A Theory of Cognitive
Dissonance p
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Selective exposure theory - Cognitive dissonance theory
1
The reduction in cognitive dissonance
following a decision can be achieved
by selectively looking for decisionconsonant information and avoiding
contradictory information
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Persuaded - Cognitive dissonance theory
1
For example, a person who is addicted to
smoking cigarettes but also suspects it
could be detrimental to his health suffers
from cognitive dissonance.
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