Notes CH 14 Part 2
Some notes on Makers of America – Irish
War raging in Europe, 1793 -1815, French Revolution & the Napoleonic Wars,
brought prosperity to the poor landsmen of Ireland….Ireland’s fields fed the war
torn continent…growing grain and potato, prices for many who only rented their
land, “sharecroppers,” were high and for most they could survive and prosper.
After 1815, and the end of the wars, European lands formerly torn by war now grew
huge crops….prices plummeted for agricultural goods, by ½, returning British
soldiers now swept into Ireland to keep the peace, both of these occurrences would
be bad for the average Irish tenant farmer. In 1845, the potato crop was ruined by
disease…. These 3 changes brought the Irish to their knees…more than a
million people died of starvation…. Another million sailed for America, and began
the pattern that continued for decades….those looking for “opportunity” turned to a
place that promised that and FREEDOM…
Most Irish immigrants were young and literate in English, most remained in
the growing urban centers of the Northeast due to their lack of $$$ to venture
West. They found life difficult in the cities… working in the expanding factories and
serving as domestic servants…most toiled as day laborers…
The Irish were devout Roman Catholics…and this caused conflict, often violent,
and discrimination; among their new Protestant neighbors…they constructed their
own schools to make sure their children stayed true to their faith.
The Irish did have a skill that they brought with them….Politics…this readied them
to participate in the “boss” system and political machines in America’s
northeastern cities., like “Tammany Hall” in NYC. The “Boss” would meet each
newcomer off the ships, ask only for his vote, and in return the “Machine” provided a
place to live, a job, and help with the law…Most large cities had issues with the pace
of growth and services were rarely provided to the slums were most new
immigrants lived… so working together to protect themselves they easily adapt to
the “Boss-Machine” system already established in these cities…Due to their
abilities, soon the Irish controlled these machines…and it opens up more
employment opportunities on the “city” payroll- Policemen for example. Irish voters
ALWAYS VOTED DEMOCRATIC.. the party controlled the machines of the eastern
cities, and they became a reliable large VOTING BLOCK that controlled city politics
for a century after…
This evolution of the Irish political power and their Roman Catholicism caused
many “natives” that lived in these areas…to protest their continuing
success…This competition for jobs and votes leads to discrimination and violence
often….even new groups form to oppose them such as the “Order of the Star
Spangled Banner=American Party-“know-nothings”…. or the American Protective
Association… The immigration laws that we are familiar with today…are not passed
during this time period…due to the immigrants valuable labor that was growing the
industrial revolution so quickly in the urban northeast… Cheap Labor was hard to
find and the industrial leaders were not going to restrict immigration until much
later in the 19th century….if they could keep this fresh supply of workers coming our
expansion was unlimited, profits, too.
The Germans
From 1820 – 1920 more German immigrants came to America than any other
immigrant group. The Germans did not cause as much panic in nativists most
likely due to their movement out of the cities and into the middle of the
continent, as well as the fact that often they were more educated and had more
money than the Irish.
They prospered, building towns in Wisconsin, Texas, and Pennsylvania. Their
contributions to reform and community building matched the age. “Germans”
were often misidentified as the “Dutch” due to the spelling of their homeland,
“Deutschland.” The term German is loosely used, Germany in fact does not unify
until 1871…they were a loose set of independent principalities, kingdoms, and
duchies. They came as Prussians, Bavarians (my ancestors), Hessians, Rhinelanders,
Pomeranians, and Westphalians.
Many came after the failed “liberal” democratic revolution of 1848, 48ers. Jews,
Amish, and Mennonites, all came for a hope of religious freedom.
Wisconsin Germans helped to build Milwaukee…it became the German
Athens…boasted beer gardens, theatre, schools, and became a model German Town.
In Texas, Fredericksburg, was built. Mixing high German culture with Texas
ruggedness, bringing to the south a more liberal view opposing slavery and still
surviving. Religious communities also were built in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana
were the Amish found utopia’s. In these areas they found they could live how they
wished; shunning modern conveniences as they are invented and living simple lives
focused on their faith. These enduring communities still hold an attraction in the
modern world, tourists flock to many of these places to see a glimpse of past life, a
living testament to the religious ferment and social experiments of the antebellum
era.
Examining the Evidence – The invention of the Sewing Machine
In 1845, Elias Howe, invented a sewing machine that could make 250 stitches per
minute…5X what the fastest hand could do. Howe received a patent for his device,
but it had limited commercial appeal due to the fact that it could only stitch straight
seams for a short distance. He later works with Isaac M. Singer and improves his
device and combines his patent with Singer and others. Hundreds of thousands
were produced in the 1850’s for manufacturing of clothes, books, shoes, and
many other products, especially home use. Due to its high cost, The Singer Co.
introduced INSTALLMENT BUYING, making payments over time. This helped
place sewing machines in most middle-class households. Later this allowed for the
commercial ready-made clothing industry to boom, especially after the Civil
War, when standardized sizing is introduced to fit the many soldiers during the
war.
Marvels in Manufacturing
-The 3 trade laws [embargo, non-intercourse, and Macon’s] and the War of
1812-1815 invigorated the building of factories in America due to the loss of
manufactured goods from overseas. After the war, the British unloaded their
surpluses of goods at ruinous prices in America. In Rhode Island over 150 mills
were forced to close, all except the original Slater mill. Congress provided some
relief with the 1ST PROTECTIVE TARIFF in 1816, among the earliest actions to
control the shape of the economy.
-The factory system was applied to more than TEXTILES (the basis of the 1st
industrial revolution) Eli Whitney, interchangeable parts, applies this idea to the
mass production of firearms, muskets, for the U.S. Army. Just like most machines
up to this time if a part broke you would have to attempt to re-fashion the part and
hoped it worked, or build another machine completely…The concept of
interchangeable parts allows for just the part to be replaced…revolutionary and it
leads to the assembly line production method. This idea was widely adopted by
1850 and became the basis for modern mass production [specialized division
of labor]-assembly line methods.
Whitney gave Slavery new life with his Cotton Gin, due to short-staple cotton
being made useable and could be planted throughout the South--which brings
on the Civil War and then gave the North the advantage due to the principles of mass
production that were applied to the factory system that flourished in the North.
Invention was tailor made to the expanding and growing American economy during
this period. From 1790 -1800 only 306 patents were granted, but from 1850 -1860
there were over 28,000. The Head Patent Clerk for the U.S. Government
resigned in 1838 due to his belief that all worthwhile inventions had been
discovered  .
These technical advances happened concurrently to the changes in the forms of
business organizations-THE CORPORATION. LIMITED LIABILITY allowed in cases
of incorporation for the business owner only to put at risk the amount of $ he put
into the business not his personal assets AND allowed for the pooling of Capital, $, to
create and expand businesses. In NY, in 1848, the state created FREE
INCORPORATON laws that allowed businesses to create corporations without
having to apply to the legislature, and this expanded opportunities for
entrepreneurship to everyone, not just the politically connected or wealthiest. The
Boston Associates are identified as being one of the earliest investment capital
companies in America. 15 Boston families come to dominate the textile,
railroad, insurance, and banking industries –really the first monopolistic
corporate mega company in America.
The Communication Revolution --was begun by Samuel F.B. Morse when he
invents the telegraph allowing for instant communication. Morse’s “Talking
Wires,” in 1844, were demonstrated when he sends his first message from
Baltimore to Washington DC, 40 miles, “What hath God Wrought.” This amazing
transformation affects the business industry, the stock ticker and more, the News
industry, with instant news, and eventually spans the continent building telegraph
lines along the railroad lines, as well as eventually, due to amazing Cyrus Field,
WHO STRETCHES A CABLE across an ocean to Europe, certainly affecting
diplomacy from that point forward. THE TELEGRAPH IS STRETCHED ACROSS THE
USA WITH THE EXPANISON OF THE RR AND MANIFEST DESITNY…AN AMAZING
CHANGE—TRANSFORMING.
Workers and Wage Slaves
The transition from the skilled Artisan making his item in is home to the
unskilled industrial factory worker was a difficult one. The impersonal nature of
the factory created “Wage Slaves.” This transformation caused much reflection and
conflict among Americans who saw this development dramatically changing the
independent self-reliant citizen to a dependent WAGE slave to the wealthy owners of
the factories… a system that was not very democratic.
This conflict between worker and owner is still played out today. Both reliant on each
other yet early on most workers were paid very little and worked in horrifying
conditions, even women and children. The new Jacksonian Democratic spirit was
in conflict with this system and it led to workers attempting to organize early
on. However, it was deemed illegal for workers to organize it was deemed a
“criminal conspiracy,” due to the factory owners ties to politicians….(locofocoists
come out of the working-men’s parties in the 1820’s). Only 24 recorded strikes
occurred before 1835, and most often women led them due to the fact that most of
the early factory workers were young women recruited off the farms. This valuable
experience in organizing bleeds into the many reform movements of the
period that women often lead such as abolition, women’s rights, and
temperance societies.
By 1820, ½ of the nations factory workers are children
under 10 !!! Wow!!! (note: this trend continues until the early 20th century,
it was deemed to be the Parent’s prerogative…and this hampers the education of
many poor children for over 100 years) and eventually becomes a target of many
reformers. Children were often abused; starved, physically damaged, and even
brutally whipped in special rooms.
By the 1820’s and 30’s most Adult wage earners lives improved, despite the
difficult conditions of work. As Working men receive the vote in the Jacksonian
period he forms workingmen’s parites (locofocoist-Democrats) who appreciate
Jackson’s attack on privilege and the Bank of the US. They attempt to get laws
passed for a shorter working day, 10 hours, higher wages, better working
conditions, Free Public Schools, and an end to debtors prisons. Employers
opposed these laws, but some were successful due to the increased # of poor voters
at this time. Martin Van Buren, hero of the loco focos, creates the 10 hour day
for federal workers and this soon spread across the country.
In the 1830’s and 40’s an increasing # of strikes occurs due to the workers new
found strength at the ballot box and an increasing republican mood and attitude.
The workers generally lost more strikes than they won, employers could employ
strikebreakers called “scabs,” often --new immigrants, not helping the conflict
among “natives.” Owners of factories could also count on the fact that most of these
jobs required a low amount of skill so the workers could be more easily replaced.
300,000 Trade Unions formed by 1830, but after the depression (often repeated) of
1837, unemployment took away their leverage as high immigration #’s in the
coming decades would do as well. However a landmark victory for union
workers occurs in the Massachusetts Supreme Court in 1842 in the case
COMMONWEALTH V. HUNT, where LABOR UNIONS WERE RULED NOT TO BE
ILLEGAL CONSPIRACIES PROVIDED THEIR METHODS WERE HONORABLE AND
PEACEFUL. This does not legalize strikes overnight throughout the country, and it is
not until the next Century that workers gain the ability to really protect themselves.
Women and the Economy
New England factories recruited farm girls to move to factories, live in dormitories
that were supervised by adult women, were escorted to church on Sundays, and
earn a wage…often this money was used to support their families on the farms, for
brothers to go to school, or to save as a dowry-money paid to their husbands when
married. However, as time passes, many women find that financial
independence allows them more choices and begins to encourage women to
question their place in their society leading them to want to participate in this
new age of Jacksonian democracy.
Factory girls normally worked 6 days a week and until the 1840’s for 12-13 hours a
day. The LOWELL SYSTEM, created by the Boston Associates in their many mills,
was a showplace and example…as described above, young supervised women in a
strictly controlled environment. Opportunities for women outside the mills were
scarce and consisted of mainly nursing, domestic service, and eventually
Teaching.
Catharine Beecher, sister of Harriet Beecher Stowe, and daughter of Lyman Beecher,
the great preacher reformer, tirelessly urged women to become teachers…she was
successful to the extent that eventually teaching became a “feminized,” occupation

About 10% of white women worked outside the home (Cult of Domesticity –
work at home) (Republican Motherhood- responsible for raising a civic minded
family) by 1850. About 20% were employed outside the home before marriage…
Please appreciate though those numbers are certainly skewed by class, race,
and ethnicity. The poorer and less white the more likely they were working. The
vast majority of working women were single, upon marriage they left their
paying job and began to focus on their work at home. *******The Cult of
Domesticity – a widespread cultural creed that glorified the customary functions of
the homemaker combined with Republican Motherhood gave women an immense
amount of Moral Power, but also enchained them to this limited sphere and was
certainly in conflict with the ideas but not the intent of Jacksonian Democracy
(universal white MALE suffrage).
Due to the increasing # of women working and their growing, for some,
economic independence…. This brought CHANGE… Women began to have
fewer children – the # of children drop by ½ in the 19th century, marry for love
not arranged, families therefore were smaller and closer an emotional refuge
from the horrors of the new industrial world. Birth control was illegal in most
places, but practiced quietly and effectively in most families….THIS NEW
ASSERTIVE ROLE FOR WOMEN HAS BEEN CALLED “DOMESTIC FEMINISM,”signifies the growing power and independence of women even while they
remained wrapped in the Cult of Domesticity-Republican Motherhood.
Smaller families meant Child centered families… not just whipping the child but
shaping the child through alternative methods of punishment and reward…. Women
following the ideals of “Republican Motherhood,” they raised children to be good
citizens – independent individuals who could make their own decisions on the basis
of internalized moral standards. Although women were certainly not equal at this
point to women at the time …the changes were seen as a big step upward, especially
compared to grinding farm life.
Western Farmers Reap a Revolution in the Fields
Western farms were thriving…especially in Ohio-Indiana- Illinois…. this area was
fast becoming America’s BREADBASKET….before long it would be the granary to the
world.
Pioneer families first hacked out a clearing in the forest and then planted corn…it
could be fed to hogs or distilled into liquor…so many hogs were butchered
Cincinnati began to call itself the “Porkopolis of the West.”
KEY: at first most produce was floated down the Ohio-Miss River system South. BUT
as the ARTIFICIAL LINKS were built: Roads, Canals, Railroads…. Most of their
produce was sent to the newly sprawling Eastern Cities…THIS TRANSITION IS KEY
AS IDEAS ARE TRANSPORTED AS WELL, THE MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS, LINKS
THE NORTHEAST WITH THE WEST SOLIDLY AS THE CONFLICTS THAT BEGIN
THE CIVIL WAR DEVELOP.
As more and more western acreage was bought and developed some handy
inventions made it easier and although these labor saving machines did cost $$$
they allow production to soar….
1837 – John Deere’s STEEL plow….sharp, lighter and could be pulled by horses
(iron before)
1830 – McCormick’s Mechanical Mower-Reaper – These horse drawn machines
could do the work of 5 men…..NO OTHER AMERICAN INVENTION, other than RR’s,
CUT SO WIDE A SWATH…. Subsistence style farming gave way to huge
agribusinesses …more land, more crops, more $$$....especially impactful farming
WHEAT…. Large-Scale Specialized Agriculture came to dominate the
West…Farmers had to become better businessmen due to the increased costs and
competition….
Highways and Steamboats (transportation rev.)
By 1789 primitive methods of travel were still in use, primarily on rivers
downstream. Travel was slow, uncertain, and often dangerous. Stagecoaches
and Wagons lurched over bone-shaking roads…it was difficult
Another difficulty were the pesky States-Righters who opposed ‘Internal
Improvements” – Federal $ to local projects are seen as unconstitutional due to
fears of the GROWING POWER OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT---THAT WOULD
ENABLE THE “FREE NORTH” TO CONTROL GOVERNMENT. Some Eastern states (at
first before the factories) opposed this as well due to the ease at which people could
leave for better opportunities…
Roads are the first improvements
The Lancaster Turnpike was built in the 1790’s by private investors…it was a broad
two lane hard surfaced highway that ran 62 miles from Philly to Lancaster, PA. BUT
IT WAS A TOLL ROAD…it was highly successful and attracted a rich trade to Philly. A
turnpike boom followed that lasted about 20 years and stimulated western
development.
In 1811, the Federal Gov’t was able to finance 1 road, called the NATIONAL
ROAD- CUMBERLAND ROAD, this highway stretched from Baltimore (connected by
another road to Cumberland Maryland) to Vandalia, Illinois, EVENTUALLY TO
ST.LOUIS, THE GATEWAY TO THE WEST--- and by 1852 was finished.
Steamboats are next…overlapping the turnpike craze Robert Fulton and Robert
Livingston (remember he saw one in Paris) installed a powerful steam engine in a
boat…called the “Clermont,” in 1807- he tested this idea…called “Fulton’s
Folly”…and it was a success,,, going from NYC up the Hudson River to
Albany…UPSTREAM…. It made the run in 32 hours, 150 miles. This was
sensational…within a few years this invention changed ALL OF THE NAVIGABLE
RIVERS IN THE USA TO TWO-WAY PREDICTABLE TRAFFIC HGIHWAYS this
doubled the carrying capacity….By 1820 60 steamboats on the Miss R. alone, by
1860 over 1,000. THIS INVENTION PLAYS A VITAL ROLE IN THE OPENING OF
THE WEST AND SOUTH… now they could acquire anything at a much lower cost
and ship their goods cheaper and more reliably around the nation and
eventually the world.
“Clinton’s Big Ditch” in New York – The Canal Craze 1820’s -1840’s
The Canal Era paralleled the boom in turnpikes and steamboats. Some were built in
the colonial days…but they were small projects in comparison to what was about to
happen.
New York State funds the building of the ERIE CANAL..linking the Great Lakes
to the Hudson River, thus NYC & the Atlantic Ocean…. Governor DeWitt Clinton
pushed this project to completion from 1817-1825. The Empire State was the
benefactor of one of the largest Markets in the World.. The cost of shipping a ton
of grain from Buffalo to New York City fell from 100$ to 5$ (wow)… the time of
transit from 20 days to 6 days… the value of the land close to the canal skyrocketed,
new cities sprung up, Industry in the state boomed…thousands of immigrants flock
to the Great Lakes to farm…Steamboats fill the Great Lakes and connected in
cities like Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago that exploded into mighty
cities…The price of potatoes in NYC was cut in 1/2, it encouraged many to leave and
follow the canals elsewhere to better land…some stopped farming and moved to the
cities to work in factories…THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE NORTHEAST –
CANAL CONSEQUENCES – BECAME THE EMERGENCE OF A NATIONAL
ECONOMY- don’t forget IDEAS move along these arteries as well as we will see in
the next chapter… [great maps of the development of the many canals built in the
USA..u need to check it out]
The Iron Horse
THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVEOPMENT OF A NATIONAL
ECONOMY WAS THE RAILROAD.*****
It was fast, reliable, and cheaper than canals to construct, did not freeze in winter
and able to go over mountains and water, almost anywhere.
The 1st railroad appeared in 1828, and their development faced strong opposition
by canal backers who hated the competition…But by 1860 America boasted
30,000 miles of track ¾ of it in the NORTH.
Early railroads were somewhat dangerous …Brakes had to perfected, arrivals
and departures were not scheduled, and DIFFERENCES IN GAUGE (WIDTH OF
TRACK)…meant frequent changes among the several different rr’s that existed
initially……by 1840 there were 7 transfers between Philly and Charleston . But
eventually brakes improved, gauge of track was standardized and safety devices
were adopted…and the PULLMAN SLEEPING PALACE CARS were introduced in
1859 making RR travel more comfortable…MOST IMPORTANTLY STEEL
REPLACES IRON MAKING THE TRACKS LAST LONGER, STRONGER, AND
LIGHTER AND LEADS TO A HUGE 2ND AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
AFTER THE CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR.
Cables, Clippers, and Pony Riders
Other forms of Transportation and communication were binding together the United
States and the World… Cyrus Field, “the greatest wire puller in history,” stretched a
cable under the Atlantic Ocean and connected permanently finally in 1866 America
and Europe with the Telegraph…
The 1840’s and 50’s was the Golden Age for American Shipping as Yankee Naval
Yards … began to build CLIPPER SHIPS…THEY WERE MUCH FASTER THAN STEAM
POWERED BOATS… They were smaller though and could not carry as much
cargo…Much of their trade was with Asia…tea etc… and eventually brought many
people from around the world to California and the GOLD FIELDS-- beginning in
1849…
Eventually Larger Steamships take over for these smaller faster beautiful ships due
to their more economical operation.
The Pony Express… and travel to the Far West (You need to look at the may on
“the main routes West before the Civil War.”)
Mark Twain’s book, “Roughing it,” immortalizes the travel to the Far West on the
Stagecoaches…by 1858 they were a familiar sight… from the Missouri River to
California….
Even more dramatic was the PONY EXPRESS.. Established in 1860 to carry mail
speedily … the 2000 mile journey from St. Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento,
California.
200 stations were created 10 miles apart…and a rider could make the trip in 10
days…200 miles a day…changing horses 20 times a day…. They went EVERYDAY no
matter what…. In the 18 months this existed ONLY ONE TRIP WAS
MISSED…wow…
it closes after 18 months due to losing $. Really the Telegraph was what caused the
PE to fail financially… By 1861 enough poles had been planted to telegraph
California…
The Transport Web Binds the Union
The East’s motivation to tap the West’s resources led to the transportation
revolution… until about 1830 most of the Western products flowed
South…eventually sold out of New Orleans… However true revolutionary changes
in commerce and communication start in the 1830’s and continue until the
Civil War in 1861… as CANALS AND RAILROADS….ARE BUILT AND PUSH INTO
THE WEST…this changes the NATURAL FLOW of goods from West to South…to
West to North…by “internal improvements.” No wonder the south consistently
vetoes and blocks these bills from passage in Congress…eventually States and
Private Individuals fund and build these projects around the country…
By the 1840’s BUFFALO handled more western produce than New Orleans…
between 1836 and 1860 grain shipments through BUFFALO…increased by 60X…and
New York City (the end of the Erie Canal System) became the chief port in America
as the Western farmers poured their produce into the Canal and Railroad
systems….
By the Eve of the Civil War, 1861, a truly continental economy had emerged,
Henry Clay’s American System fulfilled… The principle of DIVISION OF
LABOR….applied on a NATIONAL SCALE… as each REGION SPECIALIZED IN A
PARTICULAR TYPE OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY******* the South raised Cotton for
export to NE and Europe (England and France) The West grew Grain and raised
Livestock to feed factory workers in the EAST and in Europe and The East made
Machines -Manufactured Goods and Textiles (cloth-thread) for the South and
West…
THIS ECONOMIC PATTERN HAD FATEFUL POLITICAL AND MILITARY
IMPLICATIONS… Southerners were very slow to realize that they had lost the
competition for the west as RR and Canals spread across the continent… they were
convinced that many of these states would secede with them ..AND THEY WERE
WRONG…. And they ended up FIGHTING THE BOTH REGIONS…thus their fate was
sealed…
The Market Revolution
A subsistence economy of scattered farms and tiny workshops was transformed
into a national network tied by industry and commerce. – the Market rev.
As more and more people were tied to this capitalistic market economy…households
were transformed… in growing #’s they now worked for wages and planted, maybe a
little on the side..to sell at markets and used the $ to buy manufactured products
made by people in factories…no longer self-sufficient they relied on wages to live,
more and more…still a lot of farmers… but more and more people moved to cities
and work in factories… STORE BOUGHT PRODUCTS created a REVOLUTION in the
household division of labor and status… Women’s work previously necessary to
survive was now seen as superfluous and devalued… The HOME itself formerly a
place of economic production…was a place of refuge from the world of work…
Advances in manufacturing and transportation brought increased prosperity to all
Americans….BUT also widens the GULF between Rich and Poor…. Millionaires
become more common as we get closer and closer to the Civil War….Cities were
areas where the greatest extremes of economic inequality could be seen….
Unskilled workers faired worst, as always…. Many MYTHS about SOCIAL
MOBILITY are created…. Mobility did exist…BUT…. not in the proportions that
legend often portrays…. RAGS TO RICHES STORIES WERE RELATIVELY FEW…BUT
DID EXIST.
YET…. AMERICA WITH ITS DYNAMIC SOCIETY AND WIDE-OPEN
SPACES….PROVIDED MORE “OPPORTUNITY” THAN EUROPE….WHICH IS THE
SINGLE BIGGEST REASON MILLIONS OF IMMIGRANTS COME TO
AMERICA….Wages rose on average 1% a YEAR from 1820 to 1860…. This
GENERAL PROSPERITY HELPED DEFUSE SOCIAL CLASS CONFLICT THAT COULD
HAVE EXPLODED…AND DID IN MANY EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
Make sure to read my two (2) pieces on the Market Revolution (CH 14) and the
2nd Great Awakening and Reform Movements (CH 15) posted below the ESSAY
QUESTIONS on the Website 