Running head: INTUITION
1
Hi Jayne,
Excellent paper! Lots of comments and questions along the way, and some edits to
facilitate your development with APA.
Gary Galuzzo
Intuition
Jayne A. Sherman
George Mason University
INTUITION
2
Abstract
Intuition is a way of knowing that has been studied by various researchers in recent years.
From cognitive psychologists to neuroscientists, intuition has been a topic of discussion in how it
affects our social, economic, professional, and interpersonal relationships. The science involved
in our intuitive thoughts is fascinating. From brain research scientists can explain how the left
brain is responsible for our conscious, analytic, and rational thoughts, while the right brain is
responsible for our unconscious, automatic, and intuitive thoughts. Intuition can and does affect
our decision making. In addition, intuition is not free from error. This paper will explore the
definition of intuition, its historical roots, implications for research, and, finally, how intuition is
a new way of knowing for this writer.
INTUITION
3
Intuition as a way of knowing has been defined as immediate cognition, an instinctual
feeling that something may or may or may not be right. Some people would argue that intuition
is innate in everyone and can be a reliable guide. Others would argue that intuition is a gift and
that not everyone has this ability to intuit feelings and emotions or hear that inner voice. Still
others would assert that intuition is a powerful conscious influence that can either help us or
hinder us in our everyday lives. According to the psychologist David Myers (2002), intuition can
be both beneficial, and at times, detrimental. He writes regarding intuition, “Intuitions shape our
fears, our first impression, and our relationships” (p. 371).
In today’s culture there are numerous books on intuition. Just head to any bookstore or
public library and you will find rows and rows of books dealing with this subject. What was once
thought of as mystical and mysterious is considered a hot topic in the scientific community.
There are a number of articles involving intuition and its methodology and implications in
philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, neuroscience, as well as in the medical
profession.
The phenomenological idea of intuition involves a feeling or awareness that enables us to
act in a particular way without being able to articulate in cognitive terms how or why.
According to Myers (2002), “What you know, but don’t know you know, affects you more than
you know” (p.51). Our intuitions affect us in a number of ways: our professions, relationships,
social interactions, basically in our everyday lives. Intuition is a researchable phenomenon that is
knowable and indeed not without conceptual problems. Intuition is a fascinating topic that is
gaining much attention in the field of science.
The roots of intuition as a way of knowing can be traced back through evolution. Myers
explains about the amygdala, a pair of emotional control centers in the brain’s primitive core
INTUITION
4
allowed our primitive ancestors to flee predators. He states, “The amygdala is a key part of our
hard-wired alarm system that enabled our ancestors instinctively to avoid predators and disasters
and to know whom to trust” (Myers, 2002, p. 38).
Dr. Daniel Capon M.D. agrees that our ancestors could not have survived without
intuition. He writes that intuition has always been an important part of human intelligence.
“There is no way our human ancestors could have survived without intuition…old Pith could not
possibly have survived predators or natural threats as melting of the ice age without intuitive
decisions” (Capon, 1993, p. 41). This makes perfect sense when thinking about evolution and
survival. Our ancestors must have had some intuitive feelings regarding predators and their
ability to survive natural disasters and other dangers.
The Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, believed intuition was not obtained through
the senses but rather by intelligence. Descartes believed that intuition was a way of knowing
through reason and deduction and not by way of the senses. The senses can fool us according to
Descartes. Intuition was thought of as being synonymous with cognition unaided by experience.
Descartes writes, “By intuition I mean, not the wavering assurance of the senses, or deceitful
judgment of a misconstrued imagination, but a conception, formed by unclouded mental
attention, so easy and distinct as to leave no room for doubt in regard to the thing we are
understanding” (Descartes, 1657/2002, p. 124). Descartes believed that although the senses were
necessary in practice they were not essential for knowledge. Following Descartes there were new
explanations concerning intuition.
The English philosopher John Locke believed that both perception and intellect were two
separate intuitive faculties necessary for knowledge. Locke believed that intuitive knowledge
was the irresistible and unquestionable perception of the agreement of any two ideas without the
INTUITION
5
mediation of any other. He felt that intuitive thinking was the most perfectly certain of all
degrees of human knowledge. Intuitive knowledge accounts for our self-evident truths and serves
as the foundation for which all other knowledge is accepted (Locke, 2014).
The German philosopher Immanuel Kant, widely considered a central figure of modern
philosophy, thought sense perception to be the new paradigm for intuition. In his work Critique
of Pure Reason, Kant suggests that much of what we consider to be reality is shaped by the
perceiving mind. The mind, according to Kant, does not passively receive information provided
by the senses. Rather, it actively shapes and makes sense of that information. Kant (1781/2011).
The positivist Thomas Kuhn wrote of intuition and creating new paradigms. He
believed that in order for new paradigms to be formed new experiences are added to previous
ones and a new paradigm is conceived. Intuitions depend on experience gained from the old
paradigm according to Kuhn. He writes of paradigms being derived from experiences or
“flashes” of intuition. These “flashes” of intuition enable scientists to see a new solution to a
previously unsolved puzzle. Kuhn also mentions how at other times such “illuminations” come
during sleep (Kuhn, 1996 p. 122-123). He writes about the eventuality of a theory involving
perception and the mind. One might wonder how Kuhn would have reacted to the research on
intuition and if he felt a new paradigm was possible.
The cognitive scientist Jerome Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical thinking
should both be encouraged and rewarded. Bruner wrote of metacognition in learning and spoke
of intuitive skills being under emphasized and made appeals for experts in all fields of research
to make “intuitive” leaps regarding the educational process. Bruner writes, “A long time ago I
proposed the concept of the “spiral curriculum,” the idea that in teaching a subject you begin
with an “intuitive” account that is well within the reach of the student, and then circle back later
INTUITION
6
to a more formal or highly structured account…the learner has mastered the topic” (Bruner,
1996, p. 119). Bruner continues to explain how children can demonstrate intuitively higher level
thinking such as physics by simply understanding, for example, how a lever works on a
playground seesaw.
Today there are many theories of intuition. While researchers may not all agree as to
how intuition happens, they do agree that it exists. At one time or another we have all had that
unexplained instinctual feeling. Intuition can be viewed as either rational or conscious thought
along with unconscious thought or a dual process or a single process not to be separated from
other possible ways of knowing depending upon which research one reads.
According to the research psychologist David Myers (2002), thinking, memory,
perceptions and attitudes operate on two levels. Scientists refer to this as dual processing. The
mind, according to Myers, has two components. There is the cognitive or conscious deliberate
mind that is analytical and the unconscious mind that operates “off stage” and is automatic and
intuitive. Myers states how neuroscientists have identified pathways in the brain that explain why
feelings can sometimes occur before thinking. He explains that such a pathway travels from the
eye via the thalamus, which is the brain’s sensory control center to the amygdala a pair of
emotional control centers in the brain’s core. This eye to the? amygdala path bypassing the
cortex enables emotional response before intellect intervenes. Myers writes, “The amygdala
sends more neural projections up the cortex than it receives. This makes it easier for our feelings
to hijack our thinking than for our thinking to rule our feelings” (p. 37). After the cortex
interprets a threat, the thinking or conscious part of the brain takes over.
There is another theory of intuition similar to that of the dual processing theory called the
“two minds” theory. According to psychologist Johnathan Evans (2010), this theory consists of a
INTUITION
7
number of characteristics from the dual processing account. However, Evans believes that each
mind has access to different and distinct forms of knowledge together with corresponding
learning and memory systems. He refers to these as Type 1 and Type 2 minds. Type 1 mind deals
with intuitive and experiential learning consisting from evolutionary ancient mechanisms. Type 2
mind deals with working memory. Evans writes, “I argue also that intuition should be seen as the
contrastive of reasoning, corresponding roughly to the distinction between Type 1 (intuitive) and
Type 2 (reflective) processes in contemporary dual processes of thinking” (p. 316). Evans
believes that intuition is quick and can reflect large amounts of information processing. Intuition
can also provide accurate judgments when it is based upon relevant experiences.
Yet another theory on intuition is referred to as the cognitive continuum theory. The dual
processing theory examines the information process, the cognitive continuum theory deals with
the outcome. This is called the “unidimensional” view which suggests that rational and intuitive
thinking occur on opposite ends of a continuum. This theoretical perspective expects most
information processing to occur as a mixture of both thinking styles referred to as zone of
“quasirationality.” According to Marta Sinclair (2010), “Whereas dual system theories examine
the process, the cognitive continuum theory deals with the outcome in terms of used style. In
other words the former asks along which pathways the processed information travels, whereas
the latter is interested in the resulting cognitive style” (p. 379). Sinclair states that it is very
important to differentiate between intuiting as unconscious information processing and intuition
as its consciously registered outcome.
According to the psychologist Kenneth R. Hammond (2010), the concept of intuition
needs to be reformulated. Hammond suggests the continuum would have pure analysis as the
maximum at one end of a pole and pure intuition at a maximum at the opposite end of a pole. He
INTUITION
8
writes, “the greater part of our cognitive activity is quasirational; it is the normal form of
cognition-human judgment that is neither purely analytical nor purely intuitive it involves
differing proportions of each, depending on which attributes are present in our normal activity”
(p. 330). Hammond believes intuition is an in between process on the continuum rather than
completely rational or experiential. This quasirational concept of intuition means information
processing is to occur as a mixture of both rational and intuitive styles.
Daniel Capon, M.D. writes of measuring intuition. He and several colleagues worked for
three years to develop a measurement called the Intuition Quotient Test, or the IQ2. According to
Capon the quotient refers to the proportion of general intelligence that intuition makes up. Capon
(1993) states, “Although a trained scientist and great believer in rational thought, I am convinced
that intuition is the older, wiser, and perhaps greater part of human intelligence” (p. 41). It would
be interesting to know the outcome if Capon were able to measure the various types of intuitions
such as moral, social, mathematical, psychic, etc. with his Quotient Test and if the measurements
could predict intuitive behavior in individuals.
Steven Hales believes that intuition has not always been thought of in a good way, but
rather, “kept hidden from the light of day” (Hales, 2000, p. 135). Hales argues that intuition is a
rational process rather than an empirical one. He writes that some philosophers are in denial
when it comes to the role of intuition because they are in need of the empirical evidence. Hales
continues to discuss intuition with regards to philosophy and concludes with, “appeal to rational
intuition is epistemically justified only if a form of foundationalism is true” (p. 135). In his
article Hales explores the many arguments concerning the faculty of intuition and its differing
views among the positivists, logical positivists, and other philosophers.
INTUITION
9
Regardless of the various theories of intuition, one thing is certain, intuition can affect us
both positively and negatively. Intuition can inform our decision making in our personal and
professional relationships. Intuition can affect our overall everyday lives, both good and bad.
According to Nalini Ambady, (2010) people are intuitively able to predict certain
outcomes based upon brief or “thin slices” of observations. “Thin slice judgments are impeded
by tasks involving deliberation such as reasons analyses tasks. Thus, impressionistic evaluative
thin slice judgments seem to be intuitive” (p. 271). Ambady believes that these brief judgments
can indeed affect how we feel about people and situations. These “thin slice” observations can be
beneficial to our decision making.
The implications for researching intuition are many. From neuroscience, psychology,
sociology, anthropology, philosophy, physics, education, medical, and even economical, research
on intuition continues to inform our decision making. Our intuitions can and do affect our social
interactions. Imagine the benefits in the medical profession if scientists discovered an actual
intuition gene in the human brain. Since research does show that infants are naturally more
intuitive than adults perhaps scientists could discover a way to help people retain that
intuitiveness into adulthood (Myers, 2010, p. 18). One must consider the affects in human
capabilities, in our professional and our personal lives if scientists could discover how to utilize
our intuitions to our advantage.
Educational researchers Connelly and Clandinin (as cited in Zembylas 2007, p. 355)
studied intuition and student learning. They studied pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of
teachers, including their unconscious and reflective intuitions, and their effects on teaching and
student learning. Their research demonstrated the positive effects on student learning when
teachers intuitively knew how to execute lessons based upon experiences. If teachers could
INTUITION
10
intuitively plan instruction more effectively and teach to their students’ strengths the outcomes
for student learning would most likely be positive. Teachers’ intuitive expertise would be of
great benefit in helping students learn difficult content.
In his research, Anthony Rud examines how both reflective critical reason and intuition
linked to expertise are needed in education. He suggests educators tap into both ways of
knowing in teaching students (Rud, 1994, p. 65). Research in intuition and education could be
used to increase teacher efficacy in planning and pedagogical methods and therefore help to
increase student learning and possibly raise test scores.
Other research has been conducted on intuitive learning and effective strategies for
teaching and learning. For example, knowing how students learn will provide insight for the
teacher’s instructional planning. According to the research by Richard M. Felder, a professor at
North Carolina State University, intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and
relationships. His research demonstrates that intuitive students like innovation and dislike
repetition. In addition, intuitive learners may be better at grasping new concepts as well. Felder
provides insight into the concept of inquiry and student learning. He believes students are
creative learners who learn best through discovery. Felder writes about the differences between
sensory learners and intuitive learners and that everyone is a little of both a different times. He
suggests differentiation of instruction consisting of various strategies and innovated activities
that would promote intuitive thinking in students to improve student learning (Felder, 2000).
Research in intuition and mathematics demonstrates a need for educational programs that
emphasize conceptual development over procedural. Symbolic intuition or the intuitive
understanding of mathematical symbols develops as a result of experience with formal and
abstract school-based procedures. As stated by Talia Ben-Zeev (2002), of Brown University, “by
INTUITION
11
examining the nature of intuitive mathematics we could help (a) improve our understanding of
people’s formal- and informal reasoning skills and (b) create more effective instructional
materials” (p.1). Perhaps this could help teachers to plan differentiated math instruction for
students to help increase their understanding of mathematical concepts and improve their
reasoning skills.
Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg found that our intuition is a result of tacit or implicit
knowledge learned by experience and without intention. Tacit knowledge is procedural.
Sternberg studied sales people, military officers, teachers, executives, and company managers to
discover their intuitive abilities in decision making. His findings demonstrated that success
depends less on academic knowledge and more on intuitive or implicit knowledge (as cited in
Myers, 2002, p. 56). Perhaps this helps to explain why some individuals just know “intuitively”
how to run a business, play the stock market, or win athletic completions. Sternberg writes that
some people just intuitively know how to do certain things with expertise and instinct. Imagine
the impact on society if one could train people to tap into their business intuition more
proficiently.
Intuition has also been studied with counselors, nurses, police officers and clinicians.
The need for quick insight without analytic thinking is often necessary in these professions. For
instance, research on intuition and nursing demonstrates intuition and its emphasis on five
features: rapid perception, lack of awareness of the processes engaged, presence of emotions,
holistic understanding of the situation, and overall good quality of the proposed solutions
(Gobet & Chassy, 2008). Research on intuition could provide evidence of the intuitive traits and
necessary attributes to allow people to function even more proficiently in their jobs.
INTUITION
12
There is even research on intuition as a woman’s way of knowing. Some men would
argue that they are just as nurturing as and more sensitive than other men and women and
therefore just as intuitive (Myers, 2013). But in general there does appear to be a gender gap
with intuition and the sexes. Perhaps research could investigate intuition in men and women
with respect to professional responsibilities, attitudes, and performance. Research might also
indicate if there is a difference between heterosexuals and homosexuals with regards to intuition
and if so how can we use this to our advantage in professional and interpersonal relationships.
Research might even allow us to understand at what age we are the most intuitive and how can
we tap into this intuitive knowledge to better ourselves and society. For instance, perhaps
scientists could discover that different types of intuition are more prominent in certain
individuals and are more suited for various subjects such as science, math, language and fine
arts.
Perhaps research on intuition could help find cures for certain disabilities. Experiments
have been conducted with split brain surgery patients regarding the right and left brain
functioning. According to this research the right brain is superior to the left brain in sensing or
intuiting. The left brain is analytical and rational while the right brain is automatic, nonverbal,
and intuitive (Myers, 2010). Perhaps more research on the unconscious automatic functioning
intuitive right brain could lead to new discoveries and cures for diseases and illnesses from
attention deficit to memory loss and Alzheimer’s.
What needs to follow is research on how to use our intuitions more effectively in our
everyday situations. We need to understand how to decipher between our gut level intuition and
our conscious rational thinking. Obviously intuitions are not always accurate. Our intuitions can
steer us wrong in our financial, professional, and personal relationships. I am certain many
INTUITION
13
people can reflect on the times intuition has been wrong. Sometimes we do become over
confident in our abilities and intuition fools us. Perhaps case studies involving the frequency in
accuracy of intuitions would be interesting. One could argue Descartes was right in his discourse
on how the senses fool us. Perhaps errs in intuition are merely perceptual tricks.
The question remains, can research be conducted to help us understand our intuitions in
making wiser decisions? If it is true that everyone is born with intuitive powers one must wonder
if science can find a way to help us become more intuitive. Perhaps it is possible that scientists
can isolate our intuitive right brains to strengthen our intuition in order to help us advance in our
professional and personal lives. It appears then when all is said and done we may respect our
intuitions, our gut feelings, however, in the end rational critical thinking will most likely take
precedence. After all, how many of us are really ready to take a gamble with intuition if it will
affect our loved ones, our professions, and our own well-being? With that being said I hope
scientists are asking the next best question with regards to intuition and will continue to research
this fascinating phenomenon.
Intuition as a way of knowing proved to be very enlightening for me. I never knew there
were so many different intuitions such as social, spiritual, moral, sports, and psychic to name a
few. I learned the functions of the right and left hemispheres of the brain and how the right brain
is responsible for our intuitive thoughts. I always thought intuition was just a feeling, an instinct
but never really thought about the biological and cognitive aspects of it. I also never thought of
intuition as a subject of scientific study or the implications for its study. In researching intuition
I realized how the method of inquiry, as with Descartes, creates the need to know more about
what fascinates us and drives scientists to ask that next best question. In the meantime we must
INTUITION
14
remember to utilize our intuitions in such a way as to make good decisions in our lives, while at
the same time not be fooled by it.
For me, I need that certainty. I have never been one to fly by the seat of my pants. I like
structure and routine, and the ability to know something is for real. I need procedures and
reasons as to why I am doing something. I need certainty. I am the person who drives people
crazy when I ask the question “why” over and over. I need proof. I prefer to read research and
then reflect upon what I read and to analyze information. Even though I have had intuitive
feelings on occasion, I would most likely use my rational analytical thinking as opposed to acting
upon my gut feelings. I need hard evidence before I jump to any conclusions or make any
important decisions.
Yes, I am in need of the physical evidence over the instinctual more often than not.
Perhaps I am more like Thomas Kuhn at school during data presentations when the Standards of
Learning objectives are isolated and scrutinized. Yet, I am a fan of Jerome Bruner as I like his
discourse on culture and education. Still…I can be somewhat Cartesian as I can be very rational
at times as well. However, I can say this without ambiguity; I enjoyed studying intuition as a
new way of knowing for me. I understand its implications for research and look forward to
reading more on this way of knowing. However, being a little more cautious, I believe I will
stick with my need for certainty as my way of knowing, at least for the time being.
Nicely done, Jayne. You gave intuition a logical-positivist review and at the end
confirmed that you remain one. As my final comment says, if you’ve widened your scope, then
my goal is met. Who knows, you may find yourself relying on your own intuition as a teacher a
bit more. Also, you did a really nice job with APA for a first-time paper. I made some model
INTUITION
edits below. You did so many things correctly, but the capitalization of titles, as noted below,
needs some work. A
15
INTUITION
16
References
Ambady, N. (2010). The perils of pondering: Intuition and thin slice judgments. Psychological
Inquiry, 21(4), 271-278.
Ben-Zeev T. (2002). Intuitive mathematics: Theoretical and educational implications. Retrieved
from http//www.gseacademic.harvard.edu/~starjo/papers/intuition.pdf
Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Capon, M. D., D. (1993). The anatomy of intuition. Psychology Today, 26(3), 41-46, 86-91.
Connelly, M. F., & Clandinin J. D. (1985). Emotional Ecology: The Intersection of Emotional
Knowledge and Pedagogical content Knowledge in Teaching. Teaching and Teaching
Education, 23, 355-367. (as cited in Zembylas, 2007, p. 355).
Descartes, R. (1657/1999). Discourse on Method and Related Writings. New York, NY:
Penguin Books. Evans, J. B. (2010). Intuition and Reasoning: A Dual-Process
Perspective. Psychology Press, 21, 313-326.
Felder, R. M. (2005). Learning Style and Strategies. Retrieved from
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/RMF.html
Gobet, F., & Chassy P. (2008). Towards an Alternative to Benner’s Theory of Expert Intuition
in Nursing: A Discussion Paper. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45, 129–139.
Hales, S. (2012). The Faculty of Intuition, Analytic Philosophy, 53, 180-207.
Hammond, K. R. (2010). Intuition, No...Quasirationality, Yes! Psychology Press, 21, 327-337.
Kant, I. (1781/2011). The Critique of Pure Reason. ( J.M. D. Meiklejohn, trans.) Seattle, WA:
Pacific Publishing Co.
Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: The University
of Chicago Press.
INTUITION
17
Locke, T. (2014). Title? Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/locke/ John Locke
Myers, D. (2002). Intuition Its Powers and Perils. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Myers, D. G. (2010). Intuition’s Powers and Perils, Psychological Inquiry, 21, 371-377.
Rud, A. G. (1994). Intuition and the Socratic Method: Two Opposed Ways of Knowing? Studies
in Philosophy and Education, 13, 65-75.
Sinclair, M. (2010). Misconceptions about intuition. Psychological Inquiry, 28(21), 378-386.
Sternberg, R. (2002) Intuition Its Powers and Perils, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.