TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL
EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND
SPORT
MODERN PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
•1893—Thomas Wood—"The great
thought in physical education is not
the education of the physical
nature, but the relation of physical
training to complete education, and
then the effort to make the physical
contribute its full share to the life
of the individual, in environment,
training, and culture."
THOMAS WOOD
THOMAS WOOD
• 1891-1901—Stanford—physical education and
health undergraduate curricula established
• 1901-1932—Teachers College—physical
education and health undergraduate and
graduate curricula (1927—moved into health
education)
• Emphasized educational goals through "natural
activities"—sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts,
and recreation.
• 1927—The New Physical Education with
Rosalind Cassady
LUTHER GULICK
LUTHER GULICK
• YMCA Training School (1887-1900)
• Director of Physical Training for New
York City Public Schools (1903-1908)
• 1903—Public Schools Athletic League in
New York
– Class athletics—track and field;
basketball; baseball
– Athletic badge tests—dash; broad
jump; pull-ups
– Interschool athletics—Madison Square
Garden
LUTHER GULICK
• Jesse Bancroft served as Assistant Director for
physical training in New York
• Elizabeth Burchenal directed the Girls'
Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League,
which featured folk dancing
• 1906—Playground Association of America
• 1913—Campfire Girls
• Play was the most important educational
aspect
CLARK HETHERINGTON
CLARK HETHERINGTON
• Stanford under Wood (1893-1896—student
and instructor)
• Clark University under G. Stanley Hall—
child-study and developmentalism
• 1900-1910—Missouri—rid athletics of
abuses (supported women's activities)
• 1923-1929—New York University—physical
education curriculum
• 1929-1938—Stanford
CLARK HETHERINGTON
• Play was a child's chief business in life
• Stressed attainment of educational
goals in physical activities
• 1910—Four phases of the educational
process
–Organic education
–Psychomotor education
–Character education
–Intellectual education
JAY NASH
JAY NASH
• New York University (19261953)
• Influenced by Hetherington
• Recreation—part of total life
experiences for all ages
• Emphasis on carry-over sports
JESSE WILLIAMS
JESSE WILLIAMS
• Teachers College of Columbia
University (1919-1941)
• Expanded Wood's ideas of
physical education as part of
education, e.g., social education
(John Dewey), unified whole, and
living in a democratic society
• "Education through the physical"
• Physical development is a means
to an end (educational objectives)
CHARLES MCCLOY
CHARLES MCCLOY
• YMCA—22 years of service at home
and abroad
• State University of Iowa (1930-1954)
• Organic unity—physical dimension—
the major aspect of the whole being
• “Education of the physical”
• Educational objectives—secondary to
the development of the physical
• Measurement—to develop skill and
strength
PLAYGROUND
MOVEMENT
•First playgrounds in urban settings
–1880s—Boston—sand boxes—later in
schools
–1890s—New York (Central Park), Boston,
and Chicago provided green space for the
upper class; opened playgrounds for others
–1894—Chicago—Jane Addams' Hull
House—one of several settlement houses
where play opportunities were provided for
children
PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT
•Commonalities of early playgrounds
–Preadolescent children
–Summer months initially
–Outdoor equipment
–In urban (populated) areas
–Philanthropic support (donated
land); later cities financed
–Supervisors were mothers and police
PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT
•South Park in Chicago—fields,
gymnasium, and other activity spaces
•Sport was used as a means of social control
for the assimilation of immigrants' cultures
and the socialization of American youth
•Began with playgrounds for children and
transitioned into recreation for all
–1906—Playground Association of
America
–1906—Boys' Clubs of America
PLAYGROUNDS TO RECREATION
•1910—Boy Scouts of America
•1911—Playground and Recreation
Association of America
•1912—Girl Scouts
•1913—Campfire Girls of America
•1930—National Recreation Association
•1965—National Recreation and Park
Association
•Clark Hetherington—The Normal Course
in Play—to train recreation workers
RECREATION MOVEMENT
•Depression—increased leisure
time—softball and bowling
•Industrial Recreation—1940s—
facilities and equipment provided
for leisure time usage by workers—
softball, bowling, and basketball
•1950s—beginning of outdoor
education movement—hiking,
camping, and backpacking
FITNESS
• 1965—Lifetime Sports Foundation—
carry-over sports to play throughout life
–Archery
–Bowling
–Badminton
–Golf
–Tennis
• 1970s—Fitness boom—jogging; tennis;
racquetball; aquatic sports
ORGANIZED YOUTH SPORTS
• 1920s—American Legion baseball
• 1930—Pop Warner Football—Joe Tomlin
• 1939—Little League Baseball—Carl
Stoltz
• 1950—Biddy Basketball—Joe Archer
• 1950—AAU age-group swimming; later
wrestling, skiing, and track and field
• 1967—AAU Junior Olympics
PHYSICAL FITNESS
•1953—Results of the Kraus-Weber Minimal
Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of U.S. youth
failed one or more items, while 9% of the
European youth failed (tested flexibility)
–On stomach—Raise legs (10 seconds each)
–On stomach—Raise upper body
–On back—Raise legs
–Straight leg sit-up
–Bent-knee sit-up
–Touch toes
PHYSICAL FITNESS
•1956—President Eisenhower through
an Executive Order established the
President's Council on Youth Fitness as
an outgrowth of the President's
Conference on Physical Fitness
•1956—AAHPER Fitness Conference
•June 1 -7, 1958—National Fitness Week
PHYSICAL FITNESS
• 1957—AAHPER's National Research Council
developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test
– Pull-ups (boys)
– Flexed-arm hang (girls)
– Sit-ups
– Shuttle run
– Standing broad jump
– 50-yard dash
– 600-yard run-walk
– Softball throw
PHYSICAL
FITNESS
•1958—Operation Fitness sponsored by
AAHPER to stimulate fitness nationally
•1958—Results of the AAHPER Fitness
Youth Test showed poor performance by
youth (8500 boys and girls tested in
grades 5-12)
PHYSICAL
FITNESS
•1961—President's Council on Youth
Fitness published the "Blue Book" with
suggestions for a school-centered
program
–Identify the physically underdeveloped
student and work to improve
–Provide at least 15 minutes of vigorous
activity daily for all
–Use valid fitness tests to determine
abilities and evaluate progress
PHYSICAL FITNESS
•1994—Physical Best (AAHPERD's educational
materials) combined with the FITNESSGRAM
developed by the Cooper Institute
–Aerobic capacity in a one-mile walk/run or
pacer for young children
–Body composition
–Muscular strength and endurance using
curl-ups, push-ups, or alternatively pullups, modified pull-ups, or flexed-arm hand
and trunk lift
–Flexibility using sit-and-reach
PHYSICAL FITNESS
• 1963—President Kennedy changed name to the
President's Council on Physical Fitness
• 1965—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth
Fitness Test showed improvement in students'
fitness levels
• 1968—Aerobics (Kenneth Cooper)
– male = 30 points per week
– female = 24 points per week
• 1974—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth
Fitness Test showed no overall improvement in
fitness levels since 1965
PHYSICAL FITNESS
•1981—AAHPERD Lifetime HealthRelated Physical Fitness Test
–Body composition using skin-fold
measures
–Function of heart and circulatory
system using a 1.5 mile or 12-minute
run
–Strength using bent-knee sit-ups in
60 seconds (number done)
–Flexibility using straight leg with arm
extension
REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973,
SECTION 504—INDIVIDUALS WITH
DISABILITIES IN EDUCATION
“No otherwise qualified
handicapped person shall on the
basis of handicap, be excluded
from participation in, be denied
the benefits of, or otherwise be
subjected to discrimination
under any program which
receives or benefits from Federal
financial assistance.”
PUBLIC LAW 94-142
•The Education of all
Handicapped Children
Act of 1975
•Required the
development of an
Individualized
Education Program
(IEP) for every child
with special needs,
including specifically
for physical education
IDEA
The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) has fostered
significant changes in the lives of
children with disabilities and their
families and in the roles of schools
and teachers in the education of
children with disabilities. The basic
tenets of IDEA have remained intact
since the original passage of the law in
1975. However, each set of
amendments has strengthened the
original law.
INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION
PROGRAM
• Statement of the child’s present levels of
educational performance (PLP)
• Statement of measurable annual goals,
including benchmarks or short-term objectives
• Statement of special education and related
services
• Statement of any individual modifications in
the administration of state or district wide
assessment of student achievement
• Dates, frequency, location, and duration of
services
• Transition services
CATEGORIES
•Physical limitations
•Deaf
•Blind
•Hard of hearing
•Orthopedically impaired
•Speech impaired
•Visually handicapped
•Injured
•Low skilled
CATEGORIES
•Mental limitations
•Mentally challenged
•Learning disabled
•Behavioral limitations
•Attention-deficit disorder
•Emotionally disturbed
•Interrelated (multiple handicaps)
ADAPTED PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
Adapted physical education is
for exceptional students who
are so different in mental,
physical, emotional, or
behavioral characteristics that
in the interest of quality of
educational opportunity,
special provisions must be
made for their proper
education.
HISTORICALLY
•Excused
•Corrective or remedial
•Individualized
•Mainstreaming
•Inclusion—integration of
children with special needs
with students in regular
classes
•Least restrictive environment
MEN'S ATHLETICS
•Socially elite—horse racing, dancing,
gambling, cards, and yachting
•Baseball (1744—England; not 1839 in America)
•Cycling—late 1800s
•Tennis—1874 from England
•Golf—Scotland
•Cricket and croquet clubs—late 1800s
•1891—Basketball—James Naismith at
the YMCA Training School
•1896—Volleyball—William Morgan at YMCA
AMATEUR SPORTS—1850-1900s
•Athletic clubs (especially the New York
Athletic Club)—provided sports
opportunities for members (especially
track and field)
•1879—Amateur Athletic Union (1888)—
"check the evils of professionalism and
promote amateur sport"
•1912—538 athletic clubs and the AAU had
19,000 members
•Competition offered (and said to control)
40 sports; later 16 sports—especially
basketball, track and field, and boxing
MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE
ATHLETICS
•Students promoted, financed, and
controlled athletics—faculty and
administrators did not want to be
involved (no standard rules or
eligibility regulations)
–Rowing—1852—Harvard over
Yale
–Baseball—1859—Amherst over
Williams
–Football—1869 (actually
rugby)—Rutgers over Princeton
MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE
ATHLETICS
•Social function
•Winning=fans=money=winning=fans=money
•Recruiting
•Professional coaches
•Newspaper coverage
•Graduate managers
•Walter Camp controlled the collegiate football
rules committee (1879-1925)
MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE
ATHLETICS
•Control established in colleges
–Injuries; property damage; class
absences; rule confusion; gambling;
drunkenness; professionalism;
commercialism; loss of values
–Benefits—improved health; taught
values such as fair play and teamwork;
diminished use of tobacco and
alcohol; reduced rowdyism; improved
discipline; enhanced school spirit
•Late 1800s—students unified various rules
of sports
•Harvard faculty attempted to control class
absences and to regulate athletic abuses
–1882—Harvard model with three faculty
–1885—added two students and one
alumnus;
–1888—three faculty; three students; three
alumni
MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE
ATHLETICS
•1895—Midwestern colleges
(Intercollegiate Conference of
Faculty Representatives)
»Required to be students
»Six months residence for
transfers
»Must remain eligible
academically
•Representatives from 13 colleges attended the initial
meeting in December, 1905, called by President
MacCracken of New York University to investigate
the future of football due to deaths and injuries,
dishonesty, gambling, and eligibility; in January,
1906, a second meeting led to the establishment of
the NCAA and the reform of football to prevent
injuries and deaths; legalized the forward pass
•1906—National Collegiate Athletic Association was
established by 28 colleges
AAU AND NCAA CONFLICTS
•Olympic team selection
(1920s to the 1970s)
–National Amateur
Athletic Federation—
1922
•Sanctioning of events
•Certification of records
•1978—Amateur Sports
Act
MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE
ATHLETICS
•1929—Savage study of college athletics
found problems as reported in American
College Athletics
–Commercialism
–Loss of educational values
PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONDUCT OF
INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS
• Faculty control—institutional or home rule
• Conferences—save money; fewer classes
missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry
• No seasonal coaches—in departments of
physical education to gain faculty status
• Rules of sports standardized and provide
national tournaments (track and field—1921)
• Recruitment and scholarship policies—Sanity
Code (1948-1951)
•National Junior College Athletic
Association—1938
•National Association of Intercollegiate
Athletics—1940 (only basketball until 1952)
•High schools
–Following the examples of the colleges in
structure
–1922—National Federation of State High
School Athletic Associations
INTRAMURALS
•Activities among participants “within
the walls” of an institution
•Begun in 1913 at the University of
Michigan under Elmer D. Mitchell
•Initially organized and funded by
athletics
•Later, administered through
departments of physical education
•Today, comprehensive campus
recreation opportunities are provided
within student affairs
PURPOSES OF INTRAMURALS
•Constructive use of leisure time
•Opportunity to experience success
•Physical fitness
•Mental and emotional health
•Social interaction and contacts
•Promote permanent participant interest
•Practice skills learned in physical education
classes
•Training ground for future varsity athletes
CLUB SPORTS AND FUNDING
•Club sports—groups of students, faculty,
and staff who get together to share a
mutual interest in a particular sport or
activity; European concept that spread to
this country, clubs are self-organized,
administered, funded, coached, and
otherwise maintained
•Funding
–State appropriations (within
physical education)
–Student fees
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•Colonial period
–Horseback riding; dancing; fox hunting
•Next 100 years
–Riding; walking; dancing; calisthenics
•Late 1800s
–Croquet; cycling; hiking (with clothing
restrictions)
–Tennis—1874
–Gymnastics in bloomers
•Basketball
–1892—Smith College (Senda Berenson)
–1896—Stanford defeated California in the
first intercollegiate game
–1899—Standardized rules
»No snatching the ball
»Could hold ball only three seconds
»Could bounce ball only three times
»Divided court into three areas to limit
exertion
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•Basketball
–1936—two-division
game
–1949—rover game in
AAU; 1962 in colleges
–1970—full court game
in colleges
•Colleges—track and
field; field hockey;
archery; rowing; golf
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•Preferred events by physical
education teachers
–Field Day—interclass play within a
school
–Play Day—mixed teams competed
with a social emphasis
–Sports Day—within own team,
competition with a social emphasis
–Telegraphic Meet—send scores to a
central location
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•Philosophical justifications for the
opposition of women in competitive
sports
–Competition might be physically
and emotionally harmful
–Undesirable examples from men's
programs
–Philosophy of mass participation
–Societal belief of women as
homemakers, not athletes
•Participation rather than competition in 1909—
about half of the colleges had intercollegiate
competition, especially in the West and
Midwest
•Allowed if these conditions met:
»Women officials and coaches
»Audience by invitation only
»College-financed only
»No "win-at-all costs” attitude—for fun
and social interaction
•Outside schools—Amateur Athletic Union
sponsored leagues and tournaments
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•High schools followed the
colleges—but problems arose:
–Males coached
–Used boys' rules
–Spectators allowed
–Newspaper covered games
–Competition was intense
–All the above meant pressure to
win
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•1917—APEA Committee on Women's
Athletics—set standards and rules of
sports
•1917—Athletic Conference of
American College Women
–Opposed intercollegiate
competition
–Emphasis on participation by all
–Aligned with physical education
departments and teachers
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•1923—Women's Division of the
National Amateur Athletic Federation
–Opposed international competition
–Favored play days for girls and
women
–“A sport for every girl, and every
girl in a sport"—National Section on
Women's Athletics
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•1941—National Tournament
in golf—opposed by the
National Section on
Women’s Athletics
•Industrial recreation and
All-American Girls’
Professional Baseball
League
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•Increased Competition
–Olympic development thrust after
defeat by Russians in 1956 and 1960
Olympic Games
–U. S. Olympic Development Committee
in 1961—"to broaden the base of
participation for girls and women in
Olympic sports and to provide better
experiences for the skilled athlete"
–1963-1969—National Institutes on Girls'
Sports—to train teachers and coaches
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•1966-1967—Commission on
Intercollegiate Athletics for
Women—set up by the Division of
Girls and Women in Sport
–Encourage and govern
intercollegiate competition for
women at all levels
–Sanction intercollegiate events
–Hold national tournaments—first
national tournaments in track and
field and in gymnastics
HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS
•1969—Association for Intercollegiate
Athletics for Women
–Members were colleges
–Educational goals and purposes
•Set standards and policies for women's
athletics
–NAGWS game rules
–Separated from NAGWS in 1979
–39 championships in 17 sports
•Ended June, 1982
TITLE IX OF THE EDUCATION
AMENDMENTS OF 1972
"No person shall on the basis of sex, be
excluded from participation in, be denied the
benefits of, be treated differently from another
person or otherwise be discriminated against in
any interscholastic, intercollegiate, club or
intramural athletics offered by a recipient, or no
recipient shall provide athletics separately on
such basis."
TITLE IX TIMELINE
•1975—Federal government published
guidelines for Title IX
•1976—Schools and 1978 (colleges) required to
be in full compliance with Title IX
•1979—Congress adopted its policy
interpretation of Title IX
•1984—United States Supreme Court ruled in
Grove City College v. Bell that Title IX was
applicable only to educational programs that
directly received federal funding
TITLE IX TIMELINE
•1988—Congress passed (over
presidential veto) the Civil Rights
Restoration Act, which stated that
Title IX applied on an institutionwide basis, including athletics
•1992—United States Supreme
Court ruled in Franklin v.
Gwinnett County Public Schools
that plaintiffs could sue for
compensatory and punitive
damages in cases alleging
intentional discrimination
TITLE IX TIMELINE
•1993—NCAA released the report of
its Gender Equity Task Force report
that showed that women comprised
35% of the varsity athletes; received
30% of the athletic grant-in-aid
dollars; were allocated 17% of the
recruiting dollars; received 23% of
the operating budget dollars; had
access to 37% of the athletic
opportunities for participation
TITLE IX TIMELINE
•1996—Females comprised 42% of the United
States Olympic team competing in Atlanta;
they won 38% of the medals awarded to
athletes from the United States
•1997—United States Supreme Court refused to
grant certiorari and hear the appeal of Cohen
v. Brown University, thus affirming that
schools and colleges must provide varsity
athletic positions for males and females
matching the overall percentage of the student
body