Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 1 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Topicality
1
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 2 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Resolved***
2
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 3 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Resolved – Determined/Fixed
Resolved means determined, explained or answered
Hyperdic.net, http://www.hyperdic.net/dic/r/resolved.shtml (BLUEOC 0001)
Determined. Explained or answered.
Resolved means settled or fixed
OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 2nd Ed., 1989, p. http://dictionary.oed.com/. (DRGCL/A1)
resolved, ppl. a. 1. Of persons: Determined, decided, settled in purpose. Also const. with inf., that, etc.
1520 HEN. VIII in Lett. Kings Eng. (Halliw.) I. 246 Whereunto..none of our..ancestors were ever
so..determinate resolved as we be at this time. 1560 J. DAUS tr. Sleidane's Comm. 6 He was fully
resolved to stire up no further disputation. 1611 BIBLE Luke xvi. 4, I am resolued what to doe. 1687 T.
BROWN Saints in Uproar Wks. 1730 I. 83, I am resolved to undeceive mankind. 1737 BERINGTON Mem.
G. de Lucca (1738) 51 These Considerations made me as good as resolv'd to go along with him. 1760-2
GOLDSM. Cit. W. xxvii, He was resolved they should have learning. 1819 SHELLEY Cenci III. i. 341 That
word parricide, Although I am resolved, haunts me like fear. 1847 C. BRONTË J. Eyre xxxv, He was in
deep earnest, wrestling with God, and resolved on a conquest. b. Const. with for, against, from, of (=
on). 1582 T. WATSON Cent. of Love xcvi, I liue secure,.. Fully resolu'd from louing any more. 1639 FULLER
Holy War IV. xvii. 198 About this time many thousands of the English were resolved for the Holy warre.
1641 W. MOUNTAGU in Buccleuch MSS. (Hist. MSS. Comm.) I. 289 The Temple is resolved of a
Christmas. 1659 HAMMOND On Ps. 610 My enemies are maliciously resolved against me. 2. Convinced,
satisfied. Obs. 1577 WHETSTONE Gascoigne ii, Yet trust me frends.., I am resolu'd, I neuer liu'd til now.
1595 RALEIGH Discov. Guiana (1887) 106 For mine own part I am resolved it is true. 1608 MIDDLETON
Trick to catch Old One III. i, Since you are so well resolved of my faith toward you. 1719 D'URFEY Pills
(1872) III. 97 Being well resolved that none Could see her Nakedness. 3. a. Of the mind, etc.: Freed from
doubt or uncertainty; fixed, settled. Obs. 1497 Lett. Rich. III & Hen. VII (Rolls) I. 110 Our fynal and
resolved mynde is that ye obteyne al thes articles comprised in the second parte. 1578 BANISTER Hist.
Man v. 82 To passe this point with a cleare resolued mynde. 1643 SIR T. BROWNE Relig. Med. I. §3, I
could never perceive..that a resolved conscience may not adore her Creator anywhere. 1660 N. INGELO
Bentiv. & Ur. II. (1682) 76 It is difficult to suppose that he hath any resolved thoughts concerning God. b.
Of actions, states of mind, etc.: Fully determined upon, deliberate. 1595 SHAKES. John II. i. 585 From a
resolu'd and honourable warre, To a most base and vile-concluded peace. 1638 A. READ Chirurg. xxxi.
230 A doubtfull hope is better than a resolved despaire. 1694 KETTLEWELL Comp. for Penitent 92
Confess them to him with a resolved aversion: being resolved in heart to forsake all. a1716 SOUTH
Serm. (1744) X. 185 A settled, constant, resolved living in sin. 1890 ‘R. BOLDREWOOD’ Miner's Right
(1899) 13/1 A great and often resolved scheme. c. Deliberately adopted or accepted. Obs. 1659 RUSHW.
Hist. Coll. I. 176 They shew that some of the Opinions which offended many, were no other then the
resolved Doctrine of this Church. d. That has been decided on. 1748 RICHARDSON Clarissa (1811) VIII.
273 Not a resolved-on case. 4. Of persons, the mind, etc.: Characterized by determination or firmness of
purpose; resolute. 1586 MARLOWE 1st Pt. Tamburl. I. ii, What strong enchantments tice my yielding soul
To these resolved, noble Scythians. 1612 DRAYTON Poly-olb. viii. 272 Brave Voadicia made with her
resolued'st men To Virolam. 1681 H. MORE Postscr. to Glanvill's Sadducismus (1726) 17 Of whom he is
sworn Advocate and resolved Patron, right or wrong. 1749 FIELDING Tom Jones XVI. iv, Here stands your
resolved daughter. 1816 SCOTT Antiq. i, The hat pulled over his resolved brows. 1856 FROUDE Hist. Eng.
(1858) I. iii. 207 Men of..broad resolved temper. Comb. 1890 ‘R. BOLDREWOOD’ Col. Reformer (1891)
202 A subdued, bronzed, resolved-looking man.
3
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 4 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Resolved – Formal Vote Required
Resolved means to express by formal vote
Webster’s Revised Unabridged dictionary, 1998 (dictionary.com) (HARVAF3776)
Resolved: 5. To express, as an opinion or determination, by resolution and vote; to declare or decide
by a formal vote; -- followed by a clause; as, the house resolved (or, it was resolved by the house) that
no money should be appropriated (or, to appropriate no money).
4
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 5 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***The***
5
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 6 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
The -- Definite
The is definite
MERRIAM-WEBSTER, Online Dictionary, 2004, p. http://www.m-w.com/cgibin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=The&x=15&y=18. (DRGCL/A3)
Main Entry: 1the Pronunciation: before consonants usually [th]&, before vowels usually [th]E, esp
Southern before vowels also [th]&; for emphasis before titles and names or to suggest uniqueness
often '[th]E Function: definite article Etymology: Middle English, from Old English thE, masc.
demonstrative pronoun & definite article, alteration (influenced by oblique cases -- as thæs,
genitive -- & neuter, thæt) of sE; akin to Greek ho, masculine demonstrative pronoun & definite
article -- more at THAT 1 a -- used as a function word to indicate that a following noun or noun
equivalent is definite or has been previously specified by context or by circumstance <put the cat
out> b -- used as a function word to indicate that a following noun or noun equivalent is a unique
or a particular member of its class <the President> <the Lord> c -- used as a function word before
nouns that designate natural phenomena or points of the compass <the night is cold> d -- used as
a function word before a noun denoting time to indicate reference to what is present or
immediate or is under consideration <in the future> e -- used as a function word before names of
some parts of the body or of the clothing as an equivalent of a possessive adjective <how's the
arm today> f -- used as a function word before the name of a branch of human endeavor or
proficiency <the law> g -- used as a function word in prepositional phrases to indicate that the
noun in the phrase serves as a basis for computation <sold by the dozen> h -- used as a function
word before a proper name (as of a ship or a well-known building) <the Mayflower> i -- used as a
function word before the plural form of a numeral that is a multiple of ten to denote a particular
decade of a century or of a person's life <life in the twenties> j -- used as a function word before
the name of a commodity or any familiar appurtenance of daily life to indicate reference to the
individual thing, part, or supply thought of as at hand <talked on the telephone> k -- used as a
function word to designate one of a class as the best, most typical, best known, or most worth
singling out <this is the life> <the Pill> -- sometimes used before a personal name to denote the
most prominent bearer of that name 2 a (1) -- used as a function word with a noun modified by an
adjective or by an attributive noun to limit the application of the modified noun to that specified
by the adjective or by the attributive noun <the right answer> <Peter the Great> (2) -- used as a
function word before an absolute adjective or an ordinal number <nothing but the best> <due on
the first> b (1) -- used as a function word before a noun to limit its application to that specified by
a succeeding element in the sentence <the poet Wordsworth> <the days of our youth> <didn't
have the time to write> (2) -- used as a function word after a person's name to indicate a
characteristic trait or notorious activity specified by the succeeding noun <Jack the Ripper> 3 a -used as a function word before a singular noun to indicate that the noun is to be understood
generically <the dog is a domestic animal> b -- used as a function word before a singular
substantivized adjective to indicate an abstract idea <an essay on the sublime> 4 -- used as a
function word before a noun or a substantivized adjective to indicate reference to a group as a
whole <the elite>
6
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 7 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
The -- Specific
“The” denotes specificity
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000 (dictionary.com) (HARVAF3777)
the Used before singular or plural nouns and noun phrases that denote particular, specified
persons or things: the baby; the dress I wore. Used before a noun, and generally stressed, to
emphasize one of a group or type as the most outstanding or prominent: considered Lake Shore
Drive to be the neighborhood to live in these days. Used to indicate uniqueness: the Prince of
Wales; the moon. Used before nouns that designate natural phenomena or points of the
compass: the weather; a wind from the south. Used as the equivalent of a possessive adjective
before names of some parts of the body: grab him by the neck; an infection of the hand. Used
before a noun specifying a field of endeavor: the law; the film industry; the stage. Used before a
proper name, as of a monument or ship: the Alamo; the Titanic. Used before the plural form of a
numeral denoting a specific decade of a century or of a life span: rural life in the Thirties.
7
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 8 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
The – All Parts
‘The’ means all parts.
Merriam-Webster's Online Collegiate Dictionary, No Date, http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary
(HARVAF3778)
4 -- used as a function word before a noun or a substantivized adjective to indicate reference to a
group as a whole <the elite>
8
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 9 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
The – Unique/One
‘The’ means unique, as in there is one usfg
Merriam-Webster's Online Collegiate Dictionary, no date, http://www.m-w.com/cgibin/dictionary (HARVAF3779)
b -- used as a function word to indicate that a following noun or noun equivalent is a unique or a
particular member of its class <the President> <the Lord>
“The” denotes a specific, unique object.
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000 (dictionary.com) (PDNS3483)
the Used before singular or plural nouns and noun phrases that denote particular, specified
persons or things: the baby; the dress I wore. Used before a noun, and generally stressed, to
emphasize one of a group or type as the most outstanding or prominent: considered Lake Shore
Drive to be the neighborhood to live in these days. Used to indicate uniqueness: the Prince of
Wales; the moon. Used before nouns that designate natural phenomena or points of the
compass: the weather; a wind from the south. Used as the equivalent of a possessive adjective
before names of some parts of the body: grab him by the neck; an infection of the hand. Used
before a noun specifying a field of endeavor: the law; the film industry; the stage. Used before a
proper name, as of a monument or ship: the Alamo; the Titanic. Used before the plural form of a
numeral denoting a specific decade of a century or of a life span: rural life in the Thirties.
9
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 10 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Government/USFG***
10
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 11 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Government -- Central Government
Is the central government
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY WORDNET, 1997, p.
http://www.dictionary.com/search?q=federal%20government. (DRG/UNA3)
federal government. n: a government with strong central powers.
Central government rather than the states
WEBSTER'S NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, UNABRIDGED, 1976, p.
833. (MHHAR7002)
United: Of or relating to the central government of a nation, having the character of a federation as
distinguished from the governments of the constituent united (as states or provinces).
Federal government in Washington, d.c.
WEST'S LEGAL THESAURUS/DICTIONARY, 1985, p. 744. (MHHAR7000)
United States: Usually means the federal government centered in Washington, D.C.
United States federal government” is the central government in D.C.
ENCARTA WORLD ONLINE ENCYCLOPEDIA, 2006, p.
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741500781/United_States_(Government).html (PDNS3486)
United States Government, the combination of federal, state, and local laws, bodies, and agencies
that is responsible for carrying out the operations of the United States. The federal government of the
United States is centered in Washington, D.C.
11
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 12 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Government – All Three Branches
Government includes all three branches
Shafritz 88 – 1988 (The Dorsey Dictionary of American Government and Politics, p. 249)
Government is the formal institutions and process through which binding decisions are made for a society. Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)
wrote in Civil Disobedience (1849) that “that government is the best which governs least”. This statement is often attributed to Thomas
Jefferson but while it certainly reflects his philosophic sentiments, it has never been found in any of Jefferson’s writings .
2 The
apparatus of the state, consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. 3 A political entity that has
taxing authority and jurisdiction over a defined geographic area for some specified purpose, such as fire protection or schools. 4 The
indiciduals who temporarily control the institutions of a state or subnational jurisdiction. 5 The United States government, especially as in
“the government”.
The United States government refers to the three branches of the federal government
WordNet, Princeton University, 2003, p.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=us%20government (PDNS3487)
U.S. government n : the executive and legislative and judicial branches of the federal government of
the United States [syn: United States government, United States, U.S. government, US Government,
U.S.]
The United States federal government is the three branches
Answers Corporation (the world’s greatest encyclodicationalmanacapedia) date of access: June 26,
2006 http://www.answers.com/topic/united-states (PDNSS4700)
The government of the United States is that of a federal republic set up by the Constitution of the
United States, adopted by the Constitutional Convention of 1787. There is a division of powers
between the federal government and the state governments. The federal government consists of
three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The executive power is vested in the
President and, in the event of the President's incapacity, the Vice President. (For a chronological list of
all the presidents and vice presidents of the United States, including their terms in office and political
parties, see the table entitled Presidents of the United States.) The executive conducts the
administrative business of the nation with the aid of a cabinet composed of the Attorney General and
the Secretaries of the Departments of State; Treasury; Defense; Interior; Agriculture; Commerce;
Labor; Health and Human Services; Education; Housing and Urban Development; Transportation;
Energy; and Veterans' Affairs.
12
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 13 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Government – All Three Branches
USFG is legislative, executive and judicial branch
Wikipedia Online Encyclopedia, http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/United+States+federal+government
(BLUEOC 0002)
The government of the United States, established by the Constitution, is a federal republic of 50
states. The national government consists of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The
head of the executive branch is the President of the United States of America. The legislative
branch consists of the United States Congress, while the United States Supreme Court is the head
of the judicial branch.
Government includes all three branches of government.
Political Science Dictionary 73 – 1973 (Dryden Press, Illinois, p. 174)
Government is the political and administrative hierarchy of an organized state. Governments
exercise legislative, executive, and judicial functions; the nature of the governmental system is
determined by the distribution of these powers. Government may take many forms, but it must
be sufficiently powerful and stable to command obedience and maintain order. A government’s
position also depends on its acceptance by the community of nations through its diplomatic
recognition by other states.
13
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 14 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Government – Includes the States
Includes the states
BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1969, p. 461. (DRG/UNA2)
The government of a community of independent and sovereign states, united by compact.
Federal government includes states
BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1969, p. 461. (MHDRG/A7)
federal government. The government of a community of independent and sovereign states, united by
compact.
Federal government includes states
BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1990, p. 611. (MHDRG/A8)
federal government. The system of government administered in a nation formed by the union
or confederation of several independent states.
14
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 15 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Government -- United States government
Federal government is the United States government
BALLENTINE'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1969, p. 461. (MHHAR7001)
Federal Government: The government of the United States.
15
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 16 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Government – Includes Individual Agencies
Individual agency actions are still considered “federal government” actions
WORDS AND PHRASES, 2004, Cummulative Supplementary Pamphlet, v. 16A, p. 42 (PDNS3485)
N.D.Ga. 1986. Action against the Postal Service, although an independent establishment of the
executive branch of the federal government, is an action against the “Federal Government” for
purposes of rule that plaintiff in action against government has right to jury trial only where right
is one of terms of government’s consent to be sued; declining to follow Algernon Blair Industrial
Contractors, Inc. v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 552 F.Supp. 972 (M.D.Ala.). 39 U.S.C.A. 201;
U.S.C.A. Const.Amend. 7.—Griffin v. U.S. Postal Service, 635 F.Supp. 190.—Jury 12(1.2).
16
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 17 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Government – Confederation of States
Confederation of States
BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1990, p. 611. (MHHAR7004)
Federal Government: The system of government administered in a nation formed by the union or
confederation of several independent states.
17
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 18 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Government – Interstate Compacts
Interstate compacts
BALLENTINE'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1969, p. 461. (MHHAR7005)
Federal Government: The government of a community of independent and sovereign states, united by
compact.
18
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 19 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Should***
19
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 20 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should -- Obligation
Should is a duty or obligation
Webster's II, 1984, p. 1078 (BLUEOC 0003)
Should is used to express duty or obligation
Should is an expectation or probability
Webster's II, 1984, p. 1078 (BLUEOC 0004)
Should is used to express probability or expectation
Obligation or duty
WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD COLLEGE DICTIONARY THIRD EDITION, 1996, p. 1242. (DRG/UNA7)
Should. 2. used to express obligation, duty, propriety, or desirability [you should ask first, the
plants should be watered weekly].
Should is equal to obligation
WORDS AND PHRASES 1953, Vol. 39, p. 313. (DRGOC/A2)
The word “should”, denotes an obligation in various degrees, usually milder than ought Baldassarre v.
West Oregon Lumber Co., 239 p.2d 839, 842, 198 Or. 556.
Should expresses obligation and desirability
WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 1999, p. 1327 (PDNS3491)
Should v. aux. [[ME scholde < OE sceolde, pt. of sceal, scal, I am obliged: see shall]] 1 pt. of SHALL
[I had hoped I should see you] 2. Used to express obligation, duty, propriety, or desirability [you
should ask first, the plants should be watered weekly] 3 Used to express expectation or
probability [he should be here soon, I should know by tomorrow] 4 Used to express a future
condition [if I should die tomorrow, if you should be late] 5 used in polite or tentative expression
or opinion [I should think they will be pleased] See usage note at will2
20
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 21 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should -- Mandatory
Should implies mandatory action
WORDS AND PHRASES 1953, Vol. 39, p. 312. (DRGOC/A3)
Command implied. The word “should,” as used in Laws 1901, p. 387, c 106, 3, providing that, on
proof of certain facts to the county court, it shall be determined whether territory should be
disconnected from a city, does not authorize the court to do as it pleases; the statute is
mandatory.
“Should” is used to express actions
MERRIAM-WEBSTER, 2002, p. http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary (PDNS3492)
1. Used to express obligation or duty: You should send her a note. 2. Used to express probability
or expectation: They should arrive at noon. 3. Used to express conditionality or contingency: If
she should fall, then so would I. 4. Used to moderate the directness or bluntness of a statement: I
should think he would like to go.
21
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 22 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should -- Likely
Should means likely
Webster's New World Dictionary, 1982, p. 934 (BLUEOC 0005)
Should means is likely to happen
Should describes what is probable
Compact Oxford English Dictionary, 07, (http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/should?view=uk)
(HARVAF3780)
should - modal verb (3rd sing. should) 1 used to indicate obligation, duty, or correctness. 2 used
to indicate what is probable. 3 formal expressing the conditional mood. 4 used in a clause with
‘that’ after a main clause describing feelings. 5 used in a clause with ‘that’ expressing purpose. 6
(in the first person) expressing a polite request or acceptance. 7 (in the first person) expressing a
conjecture or hope.
Should is used to express probability or expectation
WEBSTER'S II, 1984, p. 1078 (MHBLUE0042)
Should - used to express probability or expectation. They should arrive here soon.
Should means is likely to happen
WEBSTER'S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 1982, p. 934 (MHBLUE0043)
Should - means is likely to happen.
22
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 23 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should – Past Tense
Should refers to past action
WEBSTER'S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 1982, p. 934 (MHBLUE0044)
Should - refers to past action. To make statements about something that might have happened
but did not.
Past tense shall refers to the present
OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 2nd Ed., 1989 http://dictionary.oed.com shall, v. 17. (DRGCL/A21)
In questions introduced by who, whom, what, and followed by but, serving to express the
unexpectedness of some past occurrence. The past tense should with modal function. As with
other auxiliaries, the pa. tense (orig. subjunctive) of shall is often used to express, not a reference
to past time, but a modal qualification of the notion expressed by the present tense. Where in
addition the notion of past time is to be expressed, this can often be effected by the use of the
perf. instead of the pres. inf. (though sometimes this produces ambiguity); the temporal notion
may however be merely contextually implied, and in that case the pa. tense has the appearance
of having both functions (temporal and modal) at once. 18. a. In statements of duty, obligation, or
propriety (originally, as applicable to hypothetical conditions not regarded as real). Also, in
statements of expectation, likelihood, prediction, etc. This conditional form of expression was
from an early period substituted for the unconditional shall in sense 2, and in mod.Eng. the pres.
tense in this use is obs., and should = ought to. ¶with omission of have in perf. inf. b. should be:
ought according to appearances to be, presumably is. Also, ought according to expectation to be,
presumably will be (cf. sense 18a). c. you should hear, see = I wish you could hear, if only you
could hear, etc. d. Used ironically, expressing the inappropriateness or unlikeliness of the action
advocated or state envisaged, as I should worry, there is no reason for me to worry, I am not
worried. colloq. (orig. a Yiddishism). 19. In the apodosis of a hypothetical proposition (expressed
or implied), indicating that the supposition, and therefore its consequence, is unreal. a. Where
shall (in sense 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9) would be used if the hypothesis were accepted. interrogatively.
1834 K. H. DIGBY Mores Cath. V. iii. 84 But where should one finish if one were to speak of the
‘lauda Sion’ [etc.].
Should is the past tense of shall
OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 2nd Ed., 1989, p. http://dictionary.oed.com/ (DRGCL/A28)
Should pa. tense of SHALL v.; obs. f. SHOAL.
23
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 24 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should -- Future
Future
DICTIONARY.COM, no date, p. http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=should. (DRG/UNA8)
Used before a verb in the infinitive to show: a. Something that will take place or exist in the
future: We shall arrive b. tomorrow.
Should is not exclusively in the past tense
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol 39, 1953, p. 311 (DRGCL/A24)
The regulations of the commerce department recommending, as "precautions" and "procedure"
for use of mounted type line carrying guns and equipment, that service powder charge "should"
be about five ounces, and that powder bags "should" be furnished to vessel containing not more
than such quantity of black powder, are "mandatory", and shipowners owe seamen duty of complying therewith. "Precaution" means previ- ous action; proven foresight; care previous- ly
employed to prevent mischief or to secure good result; or a measure taken beforehand; an active
foresight designed to ward off pos- sible evil or secure good results. "Proced- ure" means manner
of proceeding or acting; a course or mode of action. "Should" is the imperfect of "shall"; it is the
preterit of "shall" and is used as an auxiliary verb ei- ther in the past tense or conditional present. "Ought" is a synonym of "should," and both words clearly imply obligation. b'egan v. LSlccs
Bros. S. S. Co., 3 So.2d 632, 635, 193 La. 312.
Should means expectation of future action
Remo Foresi v. The Hudson Coal Co, SUPERIOR COURT OF PENNSYLVANIA, 106 Pa. Super. 307; 161 A.
910; 1932 Pa. Super. LEXIS 239 July 14, 1932 (HARVAF3785)
As regards the mandatory character of the rule, the word 'should' is not only an auxiliary verb, it
is also the preterite of the verb, 'shall' and has for one of its meanings as defined in the Century
Dictionary: "Obliged or compelled (to); would have (to); must; ought (to); used with an infinitive
(without to) to express obligation, necessity or duty in connection with some act yet to be
carried out." We think it clear that it is in that sense that the word 'should' is used in this rule, not
merely advisory. When the judge in charging the jury tells them that, unless they find from all the
evidence, beyond a reasonable doubt, that the defendant is guilty of the offense charged, they
should acquit, the word 'should' is not used in an advisory sense but has the force or meaning of
'must', or 'ought to' and carries [---8] with it the sense of [-313] obligation and duty equivalent to
compulsion. A natural sense of sympathy for a few unfortunate claimants who have been injured
while doing something in direct violation of law must not be so indulged as to fritter away, or
nullify, provisions which have been enacted to safeguard and protect the welfare of thousands
who are engaged in the hazardous occupation of mining.
24
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 25 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should -- Future
Should implies futurity
MERRIAM WEBSTER DICTIONARY, 1999, p. http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/mweb (MHHAR7006)
Should: used in auxiliary function to express futurity from a point of view in the past <realized that
she should have to do most of her farm work before sunrise-Ellen Glasgow>.
Traditional rules governing should have been abandoned – it is just used for future
obligation
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language in ‘00 (4th Edition, p. 1612) (HARVAF3786)
Usage Note Like the rules governing the use of shall and will on which they are based, the
traditional rules governing the use of should and would are largely ignored in modern American
practice. Either should or would can now be used in the first person to express conditional
futurity: If I had known that, I would (or somewhat more formally, should) have answered
differently. But in the second and third persons only would is used: If he had known that, he
would (not should) have answered differently. Would cannot always be substituted for should,
however. Should is used in all three persons in a conditional clause: if I (or you or he) should
decide to go. Should is also used in all three persons to express duty or obligation (the equivalent
of ought to): I (or you or he) should go. On the other hand, would is used to express volition or
promise: I agreed that I would do it. Either would or should is possible as an auxiliary with like, be
inclined, be glad, prefer, and related verbs: I would (or should) like to call your attention to an
oversight. Here would was acceptable on all levels to a large majority of the Usage Panel in an
earlier survey and is more common in American usage than should. Should have is sometimes
incorrectly written should of by writers who have mistaken the source of the spoken contraction
should’ve.
25
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 26 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should -- Ought
Should means “ought to”
THE AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, Fourth Edition 2000, p.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=should. (DRGCL/A18)
should ( P ) Pronunciation Key (shd) aux.v. Past tense of shall Used to express obligation or duty:
You should send her a note. Used to express probability or expectation: They should arrive at
noon. Used to express conditionality or contingency: If she should fall, then so would I. Used to
moderate the directness or bluntness of a statement: I should think he would like to go. Usage
Note: Like the rules governing the use of shall and will on which they are based, the traditional
rules governing the use of should and would are largely ignored in modern American practice.
Either should or would can now be used in the first person to express conditional futurity: If I had
known that, I would (or somewhat more formally, should) have answered differently. But in the
second and third persons only would is used: If he had known that, he would (not should) have
answered differently. Would cannot always be substituted for should, however. Should is used in
all three persons in a conditional clause: if I (or you or he) should decide to go. Should is also used
in all three persons to express duty or obligation (the equivalent of ought to): I (or you or he)
should go. On the other hand, would is used to express volition or promise: I agreed that I would
do it. Either would or should is possible as an auxiliary with like, be inclined, be glad, prefer, and
related verbs: I would (or should) like to call your attention to an oversight. Here would was
acceptable on all levels to a large majority of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey and is more
common in American usage than should. ·Should have is sometimes incorrectly written should of
by writers who have mistaken the source of the spoken contraction should've. See Usage Note at
if. See Usage Note at rather. See Usage Note at shall.
Should means “ought”
MERRIAM-WEBSTER ONLINE DICTIONARY, 2004, p. http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary
(DRGCL/A19)
Main Entry: should Pronunciation: sh&d, 'shud Etymology: Middle English sholde, from Old
English sceolde owed, was obliged to, ought to past of SHALL 1 -- used in auxiliary function to
express condition <if he should leave his father, his father would die -- Gen 44:22 (Revised
Standard Version)> 2 -- used in auxiliary function to express obligation, propriety, or expediency
<'tis commanded I should do so -- Shakespeare> <this is as it should be -- H. L. Savage> <you
should brush your teeth after each meal> 3 -- used in auxiliary function to express futurity from a
point of view in the past <realized that she should have to do most of her farm work before
sunrise -- Ellen Glasgow> 4 -- used in auxiliary function to express what is probable or expected
<with an early start, they should be here by noon> 5 -- used in auxiliary function to express a
request in a polite manner or to soften direct statement <I should suggest that a guide... is the
first essential -- L. D. Reddick
26
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 27 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should – Recommended Course of Action
Should recommends a course of action
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol 39, 2003, p. 226. (DRGCL/A22)
C.A.10 2001. Term "should" in statute indicates recommended course of action, but does not
itself imply obligation associated with "shall. "-Qwest Corp. v. F.C.C., 258 F.3d 1191.-Statut 227.
C.A.2 (N.Y.) 1999.Common meaning of the term "should" suggests or recommends a course of
action, while ordinary understanding of "shall" de- scribes a course of action that is mandatory,
and, in absence of clear manifestation of intent on part of Sentencing Commission to attribute to
"should" a meaning contrary to the common one, the term should be given its usual meaning
when interpreting sentencing guidelines and application notes. U.S.S.G. § 1131.1 et seq., 18
U.S.C.A.-U.S. v. Maria, 186 F.3d 65.-Sent & Pun 661, 665.
27
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 28 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should – Implies Desirability
Should expresses desirability
WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 1996, p. 1242. (DRGCL/A23)
Should. 2. used to express obligation, duty, propriety, or desirability (you should ask first, the
plants should be watered weekly).
Should expresses desirability
Cambridge Dictionary of American English, 07
(http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=should-1+0&dict=A) (HARVAF3781)
should (DUTY) auxiliary verb used to express that it is necessary, desirable, advisable, or
important to perform the action of the following verb
28
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 29 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should – Not Mandatory
Should is not mandatory
Words and Phrases, 2002. (“Words and Phrases: Permanent Edition” Vol. 39 Set to Signed. Pub. By
Thomson West. P. 369) (HARVAF3782)
C.A.6 (Tenn.) 2001. Word “should,” in most contexts, is precatory, not mandatory. ----U.S. v.
Rogers, 14 Fed.Appx. 303.----Statut227
Should is permissive—it’s a persuasive recommendation
Words and Phrases, 2002. (“Words and Phrases: Permanent Edition” Vol. 39 Set to Signed. Pub. By
Thomson West. P. 370) (HARVAF3783)
Cal.App. 5 Dist. 1976. Term “should,” as used in statutory provision that motion to suppress
search warrant should first be heard by magistrate who issued warrant, is used in regular,
persuasive sense, as recommendation, and is thus not mandatory but permissive. West’s Ann.Pen
Code, § 1538.5(b).---Cuevas v. Superior Court, 130 Cal. Rptr. 238, 58 Cal.App.3d 406 ----Searches
191.
Should means desirable or recommended, not mandatory
Words and Phrases, 2002. (“Words and Phrases: Permanent Edition” Vol. 39 Set to Signed. Pub. By
Thomson West. P. 372-373) (HARVAF3784)
Or. 1952. Where safety regulation for sawmill industry providing that a two by two inch guard rail
should be installed at extreme outer edge of walkways adjacent to sorting tables was immediately
preceded by other regulations in which word “shall” instead of “should” was used, and word
“should” did not appear to be result of inadvertent use in particular regulation, use of word
“should” was intended to convey idea that particular precaution involved was desirable and
recommended, but not mandatory. ORS 654.005 et seq.----Baldassarre v. West Oregon Lumber
Co., 239 P.2d 839, 193 Or. 556.---Labor & Emp. 2857
29
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 30 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Should -- Duty
Should is used to express duty or obligation
WEBSTER'S II, 1984, p. 1078 (MHBLUE0041)
Should - used to express duty or obligation. You should write a thank you note.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER COLLEGIATE DICTIONARY ONLINE, 2002, p.
http://www.webster.com/cgi-bin/dictionary. (MHDRG/A10)
2. used in auxiliary function to express obligation, propriety, or expediency <'tis commanded
I should do so - Shakespeare> <this is as it should be - H.L. Savage> <you should brush your
teeth after each meal>.
WEBSTER'S NEW WORLD COLLEGE DICTIONARY THIRD EDITION, 1996, p. 1242.
(MHDRG/A9)
Should. 2. used to express obligation, duty, propriety, or desirability [you should ask first, the
plants should be watered weekly].
30
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 31 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Substantially***
31
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 32 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Real Worth, Important
Of real worth or importance
BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY, 1990, p. 1428 (DRG/UNA22)
Of real worth and importance; of considerable value; valuable.
32
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 33 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – In Substance
In substance
BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY, 1990, p. 1428 (DRG/UNA23)
Belonging to substance; actually existing, real; not seeming or imaginary; not illusive; solid, true.
In substance
WORDS & PHRASES, 1990, p. 287 (DRG/UNA24)
What does “substantial portion” mean? It is plan that the phrase requires a comparison with the
whole rent, and the whole rent means the entire contractual rent payable by the tenant in return for
the occupation of the premises together with all other covenants of the landlord. “Substantial” in this
connection is not the same as “not insubstantial,” i.e., just enough to avoid the “de mimis” principle.
One of the primary meanings of the word is equivalent to considerable, solid, or big.
Substantial means solidly built: strong
WEBSTER'S II, 1984, p. 1155 (MHBLUE0038)
Substantial - means solidly built: strong.
Substantial is of, relating to, or having substance: material
WEBSTER'S II, 1984, p. 1155 (MHBLUE0039)
Substantial - is of, relating to, or having substance: material.
33
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 34 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantial – Means Real
Substantial means real
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 460. (DRGCL/A35)
Ala. L909. "Substantial" means "belonging to, substance; actually existing; real; not seeming or
imaginary; not illusive; real; solid; true; veritable."-Elder v. State, 50 So. 370, 162 Ala. 41. ;,
Substantial means real
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 462 (DRGCL/A36)
Ala.App. 1957. Word "substantial" means belonging to substance, actually existing, real, not seeming
or imaginary, not illusive, real, solid, true, and veritable.-United States Pipe & Foundry Co. v. Nettles.
96 So.2d 186, 39 Ala.App. 115. certiorari denied 96 So.2d 195, 266 Ala. 700.
Substantially means in substance, actually, really
OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 2003, p.
http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/00241094?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=substantiall
y&edition=2e&first=1&max_to_show=10. (DRGOC/A35)
In substance; in one's or its substantial nature or existence; as a substantial thing or being. b.
Essentially, intrinsically. c. Actually, really.
Substantial is real
WEBSTER'S II, 1984, p. 1155 (MHBLUE0037)
Substantial - is not imaginary: real.
Substantially means real
WORDS & PHRASES, 2005, p. 327 (PDNS3523)
Cal. 1956. “Substantially” means in a substantial manner, really, solidly, completely.
Substantial refers to real at the present time
WORDS AND PHRASES, 1964, p. 750 (PDNS3524)
The words “outward, open, actual, visible, substantial, and exclusive,” in connection with a
change of possession, mean substantialy the same thing. They mean not concealed; not hidden;
exposed to view; free from concealment, dissimulation, reserve, or disguise; in full existence;
denoting that which not merely can be, but is opposed to potential, apparent, constructive, and
imaginary; veritable; benuine; certain; absolute; real at present time, as a matter of fact, not
merely nominal; opposed to form; actually existing; true; not including admitting, or pertaining to
any others; undivided; sole; opposed to inclusive.
34
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 35 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Without Material Qualification
Substantially is without material qualification
BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1991, p. 1024 (MHBLUE0036)
Substantially - means essentially; without material qualification.
Without material qualification
BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY, 1990, p. 1428. (MHDRG/A13)
Substantially. Essentially; without material qualification; in the main; in substance materially; in a
substantial manner.
Substantial means material or essentially
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 469. (DRGCL/A32)
IILApI,. 2 Dist. 1923. “Substantial” means in substance, in the main, essential, including material or
essential parts. -White v. City Of' Otlawa. 230 IILApIt. 491, affirmcd 149 N.G. 021. 318 Ill. 463.
Substantial means material or essentially
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 458. (DRGCL/A33)
M.D. Tenn. 1941. Word "substantial" means in substance or in a substantial manner, materially or
essentially.-Newark Stove Co. v. Gray & Dudley Co., 39 F.Supp. 992.
Substantially means with material qualities
WORDS AND PHRASES, 1964, p. 818. (DRGOC/A36)
“Substantially” means meeting requirements in essential and material parts.
35
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 36 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantial – All or About
Substantially is all or about
WORDS AND PHRASES 1964, p. 818 (DRGOC/A37)
. Statement of facts certified to contain “substantially” all material facts, matters, and proceedings in
cause, and substantially all material evidence must be stricken. Rem. Comp.Stat. 391. “Substantially”
may mean part or about and has been defined to mean about, actually, competently, and essentially.
36
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 37 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – In the Main
In the main
BALLENTINE’S LAW DICTIONARY, 1969, p. 1232 (DRG/UNA20)
In the main. Essentially.
Substantial means “in the main”
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 483. (DRGCL/A31)
Pa.Super. 1957. Word "substantial" means considerable in amount, value, or the like and also means
large, as a substantial gain, and of pertaining to the substance or main part of anything.-Carter v.
Vecchianc, 133 A.2d 297, 183 Pa.Super. 595.
Substantially is not the main and not wholly
WORDS AND PHRASES, 1964, p. 817. (DRGOC/A38)
An oil and gas lease, describing the premises as all that certain tract of land situated in a certain
district on the waters of a designated stream, bounded “substantially” as follows, etc., means
bounded “about” or “in” the “main” as designated and not “wholly” or “completely.” SUBSTANTIALLY
DOES NOT MEAN 100%
37
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 38 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Contextual Uses
Investment in high-speed rail would make a substantial difference
Clifford Winston, (Sr. Fellow, Brookings Institution), LAST EXIT: PRIVATIZATION AND DEREGULATION OF
THE U.S. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM, 2010, 32.
Developing a 17,000-mile national high-speed rail network would cost some $600 billion and
raise the costs of intercity rail passenger transportation to an extremely high level. Moreover,
given Amtrak's limited ability to attract passengers on most routes, the loss in social welfare from
a highly subsidized high-speed rail system is likely to be substantial.
Spending $17 billion on bridges would make substantial improvement
Barry LePatner, (Attorney, LePatner & Associates, New York City), TOO BIG TO FALL: AMERICA’S FAILING
INFRASTRUCTURE AND THE WAY FORWARD, 2010, 70-71.
The United States as a whole is not spending nearly enough on its roads and bridges. In its 2009
Report Card for America's Infrastructure, the ASCE estimates the gap between need and current
spending for bridges and highways separately and in the aggregate, and the shortfalls are
dramatic. According to the ASCE, the country needs to be spending $17 billion per year to
"substantially improve current bridge conditions" but is now spending only $10.5 billion on
bridge construction and maintenance. The ASCE figures include sums for both structurally
deficient and functionally obsolete bridges.
Privatization would substantially improve transportation infrastructure
Clifford Winston, (Sr. Fellow, Brookings Institution), LAST EXIT: PRIVATIZATION AND DEREGULATION OF
THE U.S. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM, 2010, 143.
Extrapolating from the deregulation experience, I would expect privatization to stimulate innovations and new technologies that improve operations, service quality, and safety; to encourage
transportation users to be more engaged in indicating their preferences for various services and
resourceful in avoiding excessive charges; and to attract a cadre of managers and workers who
have the potential to improve the nation's transportation system substantially.
Higher fuel taxes could make a substantial difference in vehicle purchase decisions
David Jones, (Former Dir., Institute for Transportation Studies, Stanford U.), MASS MOTORIZATION AND
MASS TRANSIT, 2010, 232.
A conservation surtax that increases the total U.S. tax on gasoline to $1.00 would reduce both
the number of trips Americans make by automobile and the miles they drive, especially for
discretionary purposes. Secondary impacts would include increased demand for fuel-efficient
vehicles, increased carpooling and transit use, and driving behavior that is more fuel-conscious.
And if this tax were imposed on the carbon content of automotive fuels, fuel taxes could also
accelerate the transition to hydrogen as a primary automotive fuel. In other words, higher fuel
taxes would produce a cascade of responses, each of which would produce a modest reduction in
oil imports, fuel consumption, air pollution, and CO2 emissions. Singularly, each impact would be
modest, but cumulatively the impact would be substantial if we include the impacts on vehicle
purchase decisions and the mix of vehicles produced over the long term.
38
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 39 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Contextual Uses
Repairing infrastructure would constitute a substantial investment
Colin Peppard, (Staff, Natural Resources Defense Council), THE ROAD TO RECOVERY:
INVESTING IN A NEW TRANSPORTATION POLICY, Mar. 2011. Retrieved Feb. 18, 2012 from
http://www.nrdc.org/energy/transportation/files/roadtorecovery.pdf.
A new transportation law must adopt a “fix- it-first” approach to infrastructure. Substantial
investment should be allocated exclusively to repairs, and states and regions must be held to a
high “state of good repair” performance standard in their long-range plans and transportation
improvement programs. The era of wasteful earmarks for flashy but foolish projects, such as the
infamous “bridge to nowhere,” must give way to a focus on fixing our creaky, decaying, and
essential existing transportation infrastructure.
Congestion pricing would make a substantial difference
William J. Mallett, (Specialist in Transportation Policy, U.S. Congressional Research Service),
PERSPECTIVES ON PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS, 2010, 16.
A related point, and one not fully considered in these estimates, however, is that the institution of
a toll not only provides revenue to improve the supply of infrastructure, but also tends to
suppress and/or divert travel demand. With limited toll road mileage, this effect may be relatively
minor and may be more likely to result in traffic, diversion. Widespread tolling, on the other hand,
may result not in route diversion, but in travelers switching to other modes, changing the time of
a trip to avoid a charge, or foregoing travel altogether. DOT has made a preliminary attempt to
estimate, theoretically, the effects of universal congestion pricing on infrastructure demand,
and suggests they would be substantial.
Carbon dioxide sequestration could substantially lower risk
Ah-Hyung Alissa Park, (Prof., Engineering, Columbia U.), HYDROGEN FUEL: PRODUCTION, TRANSPORT,
AND STORAGE, 2009, 594.
CO2 could be directly injected into selected underground mineral deposits for carbonation (in situ
carbonation). This process envisions pumping CO2 into an underground deposit of porous
magnesium or calcium-bearing rock. In contrast to other underground storage reservoirs of CO2
(as in aquifers and depleted oil/gas reservoirs), this process would result in chemically stable
carbonates. Therefore, it poses a substantially lower long-term risk. The reaction would be aided
by naturally high pressures (overburden) and could proceed more rapidly than mineral
weathering on the earth's surface.
Hydrogen use would substantially decrease emissions
Michael Hordeski, (Engineer,
Formerly with NASA), HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS: ADVANCES IN TRANSPORTATION AND
POWER, 2009, 19.
When hydrogen is used as fuel, the main emission from fuel cells is potable water. Even when
using hydrocarbons as fuel, these systems offer substantial reductions in emissions. Honda's
FCX fuel cell vehicle carries 156.6 liters of compressed hydrogen (about 3.75 kilograms) in two
aluminum tanks. The fuel cell's peak output is 78 kilowatts which drives the electrical motor that
moves the vehicle.
39
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 40 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Non Contextual Numerical Definitions
Substantial is 20 percent or more
Inland Revenue, BIM55525 - FARMING: HERD BASIS: WHAT CONSTITUTES SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTION,
2002, p. http://www.inlandrevenue.gov.uk/manuals/bimmanual/BIM55525.htm. (DRGCL/A40)
What constitutes a substantial reduction in the number of animals in a herd is not defined in the
Act and will be a question of fact in the particular case. In practice, a reduction may be regarded
as substantial if it amounts to 20% or more of the animals in the herd.
Substantial is 25 percent or more
Major Nathanael Causey, ARMY LAWYER, February, 1995, p. 3. (DRGCL/A41)
DFARS 249.7003; 252.249-7002. "Major defense program" is defined as a program that is carried
out to produce or acquire a major system. " Substantial reduction" is defined as a reduction of
25% or more in the total dollar value of contracts under the program.
Substantial is 25 percent or more
NORWICH BULLETIN (Norwich, CT) June 4, 2003, p. online. (DRGCL/A42)
The MTA [Metropolitan Transportation Authority] has been defending itself against accusations it
hid $500 million in projected surplus to justify a fare increase in the subway and bus fare from
$1.50 to $2. The state and city comptrollers have issued highly critical reports and have
recommended independent oversight of budget matters. The MTA also proposed submitting
annual reports to legislative leaders on crime statistics, deaths and injuries and said it would hold
public hearings before " substantial reductions," defined as 25 percent or more, on a subway
line.
40
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 41 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Non Contextual Numerical Definitions
Substantial is 33 to 50 percent
FDA, Food and Drug Administration, HHS. 21 CFR Parts 5, 101, and 105 FOOD LABELING: NUTRIENT CONTENT CLAIMS,
GENERAL PRINCIPLES, PETITIONS, DEFINITION OF TERMS [Docket No. 91N-0384] RIN 0905-AD08 56 FR 60421 November 27,
1991. (DRGCL/A43)
FDA is proposing to define "reduced" for the following nutrients: total fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol, sodium, and calories. The rationale for defining "reduced fat," "reduced saturated
fat," and "reduced cholesterol," and the proposed definitions for these terms, are set forth in the
companion document on claims about these nutrients published elsewhere in this issue of the
Federal Register. FDA tentatively concludes that reduced claims for nutrients other than these five
are not appropriate because the reduction of other nutrients in the diet is not identified as being
of public health importance in the major consensus reports currently available (Refs. 2 and 3). b.
How definitions of "reduced" for nutrients were derived. To justify a "reduced claim" and the
consequent emphasis on the fact that a reduction in a nutrient has occurred, FDA believes that
there should be a substantial reduction in the amount of nutrient present in the food, which in
turn could result in a substantial reduction in the amount of the nutrient in diets of individuals.
While there is general agreement that the availability of foods reduced in specific nutrients is
beneficial from a public health perspective (Refs. 5 and 46), there are no scientific data available
to indicate precisely the extent to which reductions of these nutrients in available foods are
needed, nor the extent to which such reductions could affect the diets of individuals.
Nonetheless, FDA has developed a general approach to the use of this claim. In defining
"reduced," and what would constitute a substantial reduction in the level of a nutrient in a food,
an important consideration is the distribution of the nutrient in the food supply. If a nutrient is
provided by all general categories of foods, such as fruits, vegetables, grain products, and dairy
products, the nutrient can be considered to be ubiquitous in the food supply. The extent of
reduction necessary to justify a "reduced" claim for nutrients that are ubiquitous is likely to be
different than that necessary for nutrients that are found in only some or a few food categories. If
the dietary reduction of a nutrient can be spread out over all or most food categories, smaller
reductions on a food-by-food basis would be needed to achieve a substantial dietary impact than
would be needed if the nutrient is present in only some food categories. A second important
consideration in defining "reduced" is the need to provide a consistent definition for this term for
all nutrients, so that consumer education efforts can be more easily implemented. Comments
have suggested that consumers will more readily recall the meaning of the term "reduced" if it is
limited to one level of reduction, such as one-third or one-half. The agency agrees that
consistency in definition is desirable. Therefore, in developing the general criteria for the use of
the term "reduced," the agency considered the level of reduction that would result in a
substantial reduction in the nutrient content of foods as well as the need for consistency of
terms. In addition, FDA considered two other factors. In response to comments, FDA considered
the technological feasibility of reducing levels of nutrients in foods. Finally, in developing these
definitions, the agency reviewed the quantitative differences between current levels of intake for
these nutrients and recommended levels of intake. FDA is proposing to define the term "reduced"
as a difference of 50 percent for all specified nutrients except calories. The agency has
tentatively decided that there are no compelling reasons to change the current definition for
"reduced calorie" of a 33.3 percent reduction in calories (@ 105.66(d)(1)(i)). For the other four
nutrients, reductions of 50 percent are feasible, even in the case of total fat. Current technology
41
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 42 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
has demonstrated that for many foods, including dairy products, a reduction in total fat of 50
percent or more is achievable (Ref. 40)
42
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 43 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Non Contextual Numerical Definitions
Substantial is 90 percent
WORDS & PHRASES, 2000, p. no page. (DRGCL/A44)
N.H. 1949. -The Word "substantially" as used in provision of Unemployment Compensation Act that
experience rating of an employer may transferred to' an employing unit which acquires the
organization, -trade, or business, or "substantially" all of the assets thereof, is 'an elastic term which
does not include a. definite, fixed amount of percentage, and the transfer does not have to be 100 per
cent but cannot be less than 90 per cent in the ordinary situation. R.L c. 218, § 6, subd. F, as added by
Laws 1945, c. 138, § 16.-Auclair Transp. v. Riley, 69 A.2d 861, 96 N.H. l.-Tax347.1.
Substantial is 74 percent
WORDS & PHRASES, 2000, p. no page. (DRGCL/A45)
Minn.App. 1984. Ex-husband's 74% increase in net income since .1977 constituted a "substantial
increase" in income for purposes of determining whether child support order should be modified.
M.S.A. § 518.64, subd. 2.-Scott v. Scott, 352 N.W.2d 62.-Divorce 309.2(3).
Substantial is 50 percent is too high
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 457. (DRGCL/A46)
S.D.N.Y. 1943. -the phrase "substantial part" as used in rule that an employee, a substantial part of
whose activities relates to goods moving in inter- state Commerce, is covered by the Fair Labor
Standards Act, is not a phrase of mathematical precision but is the converse of insubstantial or
immaterial and the word "Substantial" as used therein does not mean the same as when used in the
phrase "sub- stantial performance of a contract-" and the requirement is satisfied by less than 50 per
cent of employee's activities. Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, §§ 3(J), 6, 7, 29 U.S.C.A. §§ 203Q), 206,
207.-Berry v. 34 Irving Place Corp., 52 F.Supp. 875.-Conuncrcc 62.61, 62.62.
Substantial is at least 20 percent
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 456-7. (DRGCL/A47)
S.D.N.Y. 1945. Maintenance employees in building seeking to recover overtime compensation and
liquidated damages under Fair Labor Standards Act had burden of proving that a substantial number
of tenants were engaged in production of goods for commerce, the word "substantial" mean- ing that
at least 20 per cent. of building be occupied by tenants engaged in production of goods for commerce.
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, §16(h), 29 U.S.C.A. § 216(h).-Ullo v. Smith , 62 F.Supp. 757, affirmed
177 F.2d 101, 12 A.L.R.2d 1122.-Labor I511. I; Mast & S 80(6),
Substantially is quantitative
Merriam-Webster, 2003 (www.m-w.com) (HARVAF3788)
Main Entry: sub·stan·tial b : considerable in quantity : significantly great <earned a substantial wage>
43
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 44 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially -- Essentially
Substantially is essentially
WORDS AND PHRASES, 1964, p. 818. (DRGOC/A41)
“Substantially” means in substance; in the main; essentially; by including the material or essential
part.
Substantially is not essentially
WORDS AND PHRASES, 1964, p. 819. (DRGOC/A42)
PATENT CLAIMS The word “substantially” is not necessarily synonymous with “essentially”. Robbins v.
Wettlaufer, S1 f.2d. 882, 893, 23 C.C. P.A., Patents, 952.
44
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 45 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Should Define in Context
Interpret in context
CORPUS JURIS SECUNDUM, 1953, p. 765 (DRG/UNA19)
Substantially. A relative and elastic term which should be interpreted in accordance with the context
it is used.
Substantial must be determined by context
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 464. (DRGCL/A38)
Cal. 1956. "Substantial" is it relative term, its measure to be gauged by all the circumstances
surrounding the matter in reference to which the expression has been used.-Atchison, 'I'. & S. F. IZy.
Co. v. Kings County Water Dist., 3(12 P.2d 1, 41 Ca1.2J 140.
Substantial must be determined by context
WORDS & PHRASES, 1960, p. no page. (DRGCL/A39)
"Substantial" is a relative term, Its measure to be gauged by all the circumstances surrounding
the matter In reference to which the expression is used. Robinson v. North Am. Life & Cas. Co.,
App., 30 Cal. Rptr. 57, 60. The term "substantial" is relative and its meaning is to be gauged by the
circumstances. State by Lord v. Pahl, 95 N.W.2d 85, 89, 254 Minn. 349. "Substantial" is a relative
term, the meaning of which is to be gauged by all the circumstances surrounding the transaction
in reference to which the expression has been used, and it imports a considerable amount of
value in opposition to that which is inconsequential or small. Application of Scroggin, Cal.App.,
229 P.2d 489, 491. "Substantial" is a relative word, which, while it must be used with care and
discrimination, must nevertheless be given effect, and in a claim of patent allowed considerable
latitude of meaning where it is applied to such subject as thickness, -,is by requiring two parts of a
device to be of substantially the same thickness, and cannot be held to require them to be of
exactly the same thickness. Todd v. Sears Roebucl, & Co., D.C. N.C., 119 F.Supp. 38, 41.
"Substantial" is a relative term, its measure to be gauged by all the circumstances surrounding the
matter in reference to which the expression has been used. Atchison, T. & S. P. Ry. Co. v. Kings
County Water Dist., Cal., 302 P.2d 1, 3.1.
45
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 46 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Should Define in Context
Substantially relies upon field context to give it meaning
Devinsky, 02 (Paul, IP UPDATE, VOLUME 5, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2002, “Is Claim "Substantially"
Definite? Ask Person of Skill in the Art”,
http://www.mwe.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/publications.nldetail/object_id/c2c73bdb-9b1a-42bfa2b7-075812dc0e2d.cfm) (HARVAF3787)
In reversing a summary judgment of invalidity, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
found that the district court, by failing to look beyond the intrinsic claim construction evidence to
consider what a person of skill in the art would understand in a "technologic context,"
erroneously concluded the term "substantially" made a claim fatally indefinite. Verve, LLC v.
Crane Cams, Inc., Case No. 01-1417 (Fed. Cir. November 14, 2002). The patent in suit related to an
improved push rod for an internal combustion engine. The patent claims a hollow push rod
whose overall diameter is larger at the middle than at the ends and has "substantially constant
wall thickness" throughout the rod and rounded seats at the tips. The district court found that
the expression "substantially constant wall thickness" was not supported in the specification and
prosecution history by a sufficiently clear definition of "substantially" and was, therefore,
indefinite. The district court recognized that the use of the term "substantially" may be definite in
some cases but ruled that in this case it was indefinite because it was not further defined. The
Federal Circuit reversed, concluding that the district court erred in requiring that the meaning of
the term "substantially" in a particular "technologic context" be found solely in intrinsic
evidence: "While reference to intrinsic evidence is primary in interpreting claims, the criterion is
the meaning of words as they would be understood by persons in the field of the
invention." Thus, the Federal Circuit instructed that "resolution of any ambiguity arising from
the claims and specification may be aided by extrinsic evidence of usage and meaning of a term
in the context of the invention." The Federal Circuit remanded the case to the district court with
instruction that "[t]he question is not whether the word 'substantially' has a fixed meaning as
applied to 'constant wall thickness,' but how the phrase would be understood by persons
experienced in this field of mechanics, upon reading the patent documents."
46
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 47 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially – Must Give Meaning
Substantially must be given effect and meaning
WORDS AND PHRASES, 1964, p. 819. (DRGOC/A43)
“Substantially” is a relative word which while it must be used with care and discrimination in a
claim of a patent, must nevertheless be given effect by allowing considerable latitude of
meaning, where it is applied such subjects as thickness, as by requiring two parts of a device to
be substantially the same thickness and cannot be held to require them to be of exactly the same
things.
47
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 48 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially -- Large
Substantially is to a great extent or degree
WordNet1.6, 1997 (BLUEOC 0019)
Substantially - adv 1: to a great extent or degree; "I'm afraid the film was well over budget";
"painting the room white made it seem considerably (or substantially) larger"; "the house has
fallen considerably in value"; "the price went up substantially" [syn: well, considerably] 2: in a
strong substantial way; "the house was substantially built".
Substantially is to a large degree
Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 2001,
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/default.asp?dict=A (BLUEOC 0020)
Substantially - adverb - The new rules will substantially (=to a large degree) change how we do things.
Majority or most
WEBSTER’S NEW COLLEGIATE DICTIONARY, 1981, p. 1153. (DRG/UNA25)
….being largely but not wholly that which is specified.
Substantial is a considerable amount
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40A, 2002, p. 453. (DRGCL/A30)
N.D.AIa. 1957. The word "substantial" means considerable in amount, value, or the like, large, as a
substantial gain.-Lcvenson v. U.S., IS'7 F.Supp. 244.
48
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 49 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantial -- No quantitative meaning
Substantially can’t be numerically quantified
WORDS & PHRASES, 1960, no page. (DRGCL/A37)
The only qualification as to the size or portion of the part lost is that it must be substantial; and as
the legislature has not defined the lost part in any other terms it cannot be said that by
"substantial" it meant more than one half" or "substantially all" of the affected phalange,
because such construction cannot be applied to humanitarian legislation.
49
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 50 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Substantially –To A Great Extent
Substantially is to a great extent
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY WORDNET, 1997, p. http://www.dictionary.com/search?q=substantially.
(MHDRG/A11)
substantially. adv 1: to a great extent or degree; "I fear the film was well over budget"; "painting the
room white made it seem considerably (substantially) larger"; "the house has fallen considerably in
value"; "the price went up substantially" [syn: well, considerably].
Substantial is of ample or considerable amount, quantity, or size
THE RANDOM HOUSE COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 1973, p. 844 (MHBLUE0040)
Substantial - is of ample or considerable amount, quantity, or size.
50
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 51 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Increase***
51
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 52 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase – Make Larger, Grow
Increase means to grow something that exists
CORPUS JURIS SECUNDUM, 1944, p. 545 (DRG/UN30)
Increase. In General: A word in common use and variously used and therefore of doubtful and
equivocal import. It is derived from “cresco”, to grow and implies the existence of something made,
the subject of the increase, etc.
Increasing is enlargement
BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY, Seventh Edition, Ed. West Group, 1999, p. 770 (DRG/UNA27)
Increase - The extent of growth or enlargement.
Increase is to become larger
WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 1982, p. 934 (DRG/UNA28)
Increase – to become greater or larger.
Increase means to grow
BALLENTINE’S LAW DICTIONARY, Third Edition, 1969, p. 605 (DRG/UNA29)
Increase. Verb: deriving from the Latin “crescere: to grow. To augment in size or value.
Increase means to become larger or greater in quantity
Encarta Online Dictionary. 2006. ("Increase."
<http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861620741>.)
(HARVAF3792)
in·crease [ in kr?ss ] transitive and intransitive verb (past and past participle in·creased, present
participle in·creas·ing, 3rd person present singular in·creas·es)Definition: make or become larger or
greater: to become, or make something become, larger in number, quantity, or degree noun (plural
in·creas·es)
Increase is to become progressively greater
Merriam-Webster Dictionary, http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary (BLUEOC 0021)
To become progressively greater (as in size, amount, number, or intensity).
Increase is to make greater or larger
Webster's II, 1984, p. 620 (BLUEOC 0022)
Increase is to become greater or larger
“Increasing” means becoming greater
Lexico Publishing, DICTIONARY.COM, 2003, p. http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=increasing.
(DRGOC/A45)
Increasing. adj 1: becoming greater or larger; "increasing prices" [ant: decreasing] 2: music [ant:
decreasing]
52
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 53 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase – Make Larger, Grow
Increase means to get progressively bigger
Merriam-Websters Dictionary Online, 2006. (“Increase.” <http://www.m-w.com/cgibin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=increase>.) (HARVAF3793)
Inflected Form(s): in·creased; in·creas·ing Etymology: Middle English encresen, from Anglo-French
encreistre, from Latin increscere, from in- + crescere to grow -- more at CRESCENT intransitive verb 1 :
to become progressively greater (as in size, amount, number, or intensity) 2 : to multiply by the
production of young transitive verb 1 : to make greater : AUGMENT 2 obsolete :
Increase means to make things larger numerically
Cambridge Dictionary Online, 2007. (“Increase.”
<http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=40073&dict=CALD>) (HARVAF3794)
increase Show phonetics verb [I or T] to (make something) become larger in amount or size: Incidents
of armed robbery have increased over the last few years. The cost of the project has increased
dramatically/significantly since it began. Gradually increase the temperature to boiling point.
Increased/Increasing efforts are being made to end the dispute. Compare decrease.
Increase means to make greater
Random House Dictionary, 1987 (HARVAF3796)
Increase –v.t. 1. To make greater, as in number, size, strength, or quality; augment; add to: to increase
taxes. –v.t. 2. To become greater, as in number, size, strength, or quality: Sales of automobiles
increased last year.
Increasing: grow larger
Word Net, <a
href="http://wordnet.princ">http://wordnet.princ</a>eton.edu/perl/webwn?s=increasing
(HARVNS1658)
Adjective --S: (adj) increasing (becoming greater or larger) “increasing prices” --S: (adj)
increasing&nbsp;&nbsp;(music)
Increase: become greater in size
Websters Revised Unabridged Dictionary, 1913, <a
href="http://dict.die.net/in">http://dict.die.net/in</a>creasing/ (HARVNS1659)
Increase 1. To become greater or more in size, quantity number, degree, value, intensity, power,
authority, reputation, wealth; to grow; to augment; to advance; -- opposed to decrease.
Increasing means becoming greater or larger
Wordnet, Princeton University, 2003, p. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/increasing)
(PDNS3525)
increasing adj 1: becoming greater or larger; "increasing prices" [ant: decreasing] 2: music [ant:
decreasing]
53
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 54 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase – Net Increase
Increase means net increase
Words and Phrases, Cummulative Supplementary Pamphlet, v. 20a, 2005, p.295 (PDNS3526)
Cal.App.2 Dist. 1991. Term “increase,” as used in statute giving the Energy Commission
modification jurisdiction over any alteration, replacement, or improvement of equipment that
results in “increase” of 50 megawatts or more in electric generating capacity of existing thermal
power plant, refers to “net increase” in power plant’s total generating capacity; in deciding
whether there has been the requisite 50-megawatt increase as a result of new units being
incorporated into a plant, Energy Commission cannot ignore decreases in capacity caused by
retirement or deactivation of other units at plant. West’s Ann.Cal.Pub.Res.Code § 25123.
Increase must be a net increase
Rogers, 05 (Judge, STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL., PETITIONERS v. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY, RESPONDENT, NSR MANUFACTURERS ROUNDTABLE, ET AL., INTERVENORS, 2005 U.S. App.
LEXIS 12378, --; 60 ERC (BNA) 1791, 6/24, lexis) (HARVAF3797)
Statutory Interpretation. HN16While the CAA defines a "modification" as any physical or
operational change that "increases" emissions, it is silent on how to calculate such "increases" in
emissions. 42 U.S.C. § 7411(a)(4). According to government petitioners, the lack of a statutory
definition does not render the term "increases" ambiguous, but merely compels the court to give
the term its "ordinary meaning." See Engine Mfrs.Ass'nv.S.Coast AirQualityMgmt.Dist., 541 U.S.
246, 124 S. Ct. 1756, 1761, 158 L. Ed. 2d 529(2004); Bluewater Network, 370 F.3d at 13; Am. Fed'n
of Gov't Employees v. Glickman, 342 U.S. App. D.C. 7, 215 F.3d 7, 10 [-23] (D.C. Cir. 2000). Relying
on two "real world" analogies, government petitioners contend that the ordinary meaning of
"increases" requires the baseline to be calculated from a period immediately preceding the
change. They maintain, for example, that in determining whether a high-pressure weather
system "increases" the local temperature, the relevant baseline is the temperature immediately
preceding the arrival of the weather system, not the temperature five or ten years ago.
Similarly, [--49] in determining whether a new engine "increases" the value of a car, the
relevant baseline is the value of the car immediately preceding the replacement of the engine,
not the value of the car five or ten years ago when the engine was in perfect condition.
54
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 55 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase – Add To
Increase: add to
Die.net, <a href="http://dict.die.net/increase/">http://dict.die.net/increase/ (HARVNS1707)
1: a quantity that is added; "there was an addition to property taxes this year"; "they recorded
the cattle's gain in weight over a period of weeks" [syn: addition, gain]
Increase: add to
Answers.com, <a href="http://www.answe">http://www.answe</a>rs.comn/topic/increase
(HARVNS1708)
Increase n. Definition: addition, growth Antonyms: decrease, depletion, diminishment, loss,
reduction, subtraction v. Definition: add or grow Word Net: The noun increase has 5 meanings:
Meaning #1: a quantity that is added Synonyms: addition, gain
55
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 56 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase Doesn’t Mean Decrease
Increase does not mean to decrease
Websters Dictionary. 1913 ("Increase." <http://machaut.uchicago.edu/cgibin/WEBSTER.sh?WORD=increase>.) (HARVAF3795)
In-crease" (?), v. i. To become greater or more in size, quantity, number, degree, value, intensity,
power, authority, reputation, wealth; to grow; to augment; to advance; -- opposed to decrease.
56
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 57 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase—Preexisting Condition
Increase requires evidence of the preexisting condition
Judge Ripple, 8Plaintiff-Appellant, v. Frances Slocum Bank & Trust Company, State Automobile
Insurance Association, and Glassley Agency of Whitley, Indiana, Defendants-Appellees, 824 F.2d 570;
1987 U.S. App. LEXIS 9816, 9/24, 1987, p. Lexis) (PDNS3527)
Also related to the waiver issue is appellees' defense relying on a provision of the insurance policy
that suspends coverage where the risk is increased by any means within the knowledge or control
of the insured. However, the term "increase" connotes change. To show change, appellees
would have been required to present evidence of the condition of the building at the time the
policy was issued. See 5 J. Appleman & J. Appleman, Insurance Law and Practice, § 2941 at 4-5
(1970). Because no such evidence was presented, this court cannot determine, on this record,
whether the risk has, in fact, been increased. Indeed, the answer to this question may depend on
Mr. Glassley's knowledge of the condition of the building at the time the policy was issued, see 17
J. Appleman & J. Appleman, Insurance Law and Practice, § 9602 at 515-16 (1981), since the
fundamental issue is whether the appellees contemplated insuring the risk which incurred the
loss.
Increases can only be measured from a relevant baseline
Judge Rogers, STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL., PETITIONERS v. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY, RESPONDENT, NSR MANUFACTURERS ROUNDTABLE, ET AL., INTERVENORS, 2005 U.S. App.
LEXIS 12378, --; 60 ERC (BNA) 1791, 6/24, 2005, p. 48 (PDNS3529)
Statutory Interpretation. HN16While the CAA defines a "modification" as any physical or
operational change that "increases" emissions, it is silent on how to calculate such "increases" in
emissions. 42 U.S.C. § 7411(a)(4). According to government petitioners, the lack of a statutory
definition does not render the term "increases" ambiguous, but merely compels the court to give
the term its "ordinary meaning." See Engine Mfrs.Ass'nv.S.Coast AirQualityMgmt.Dist., 541 U.S.
246, 124 S. Ct. 1756, 1761, 158 L. Ed. 2d 529(2004); Bluewater Network, 370 F.3d at 13; Am. Fed'n
of Gov't Employees v. Glickman, 342 U.S. App. D.C. 7, 215 F.3d 7, 10 (D.C. Cir. 2000). Relying on
two "real world" analogies, government petitioners contend that the ordinary meaning of
"increases" requires the baseline to be calculated from a period immediately preceding the
change. They maintain, for example, that in determining whether a high-pressure weather system
"increases" the local temperature, the relevant baseline is the temperature immediately
preceding the arrival of the weather system, not the temperature five or ten years ago.
Similarly, in determining whether a new engine "increases" the value of a car, the relevant
baseline is the value of the car immediately preceding the replacement of the engine, not the
value of the car five or ten years ago when the engine was in perfect condition.
57
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 58 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase - Quantitative
Increase defined as quantity
Jean McKechnie, (Sr. Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY, UNABRIDGED, 2nd
Ed., 1979, 926.
Increase: To become greater in size, quantity, value, degree, etc.
Increase refers to quantity
Ian Brookes, (Sr. Editor), THE CHAMBERS DICTIONARY, 10th ed., 2006, 754.
Increase: To grow in size or number.
Increase refers to quantity Sidney Landau, (Sr. Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF
AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd ed., 2008, 440.
Increase: To become or make something larger or greater.
58
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 59 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increase is Qualitative
Increase is defined as quality Erin McKean, (Sr. Editor), THE OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY AND
THESAURUS, 2003, 751.
Increase: Advance in quality, attainment, etc.
Increase is defined as quality Erin McKean, (Sr. Editor), THE OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY AND
THESAURUS, 2003, 751.
Increase: Intensify a quality.
59
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 60 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Its***
60
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 61 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Its
Its means a thing previously mentioned Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN
DICTIONARY, 3rd Ed., 2010, 924.
*Its: Belonging to or associated with a thing previously mentioned or easily identified.
Its refers to itself
Erin McKean, (Sr. Editor), THE OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY AND
THESAURUS, 2003, 798.
Its: Of itself.
61
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 62 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Transportation***
62
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 63 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation – Conveyance
Transportation means conveyance Erin mckean, (Sr. Editor), THE OXFORD AMERICAN
DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2003, 1626.
Transportation: The act of conveying or the process of being conveyed.
Transportation means conveyance
Jean McKechnie, (Sr. Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY, UNABRIDGED, 2nd
Ed., 1979, 1941.
Transportation: A means of conveyance.
63
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 64 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation - Movement of People, Goods, and Information
Transportation: movement of people, goods & information
Clifford R. Bragdon, Dean University College at Florida Tech, 2008, Transportation
Security, p. 3
Mobility represents the cultural lifeline of civilization throughout human history, comprising all methods
of transport for both economic and social survival. It is the basis by which civilization has supported the
character and lifestyle of its population, surviving and evolving through time. The level of effective
mobility is directly related to the transportation support system. Ideally a transport system is based on
the safe, secure, sustainable and efficient movement of people, goods and information utilizing air,
land, sea, and space. It is characterized by two mobility components: physical (e.g. nonmotorized
transport, aviation, roadways, maritime, rail, transit, etc.) and electronic (e.g., utilities, satellites,
distance communication, information technologies, etc.). This concept can be referred to as
transcommunication (Figure 1.1). Transcommunication was collaboratively developed as part of the United
Nations Conference on Human Settlements by a Habitat II task force examining the basis for an effective
human habitat, in which this author participated (Habitat II, June 1996, Istanbul, Turkey).
Transportation: movement of people, goods, resources & information
Clifford R. Bragdon, Dean University College at Florida Tech, 2008, Transportation
Security, ed. C. Bragdon, p. 36
An integrated intermodal system of transportation involves the safe, secure, sustainable, and efficient
movement of people, goods, resources, and information traveling by air, land, and sea. This complex
system of integrated or holistic transport consists of both physical modes of movement (classically
involved with roadways, rail, transit, airports, maritime transportation, utilities, and pipelines) and
electronic modes of movement (associated with communication, electronic data interchange, related
information technology, satellite and digital and fiber optic connectivity and interoperability). However,
this desirable systems approach, seamlessly integrating physical and electronic modes of movement, is
virtually nonsexistant at present. The result is a gridlock condition that underoptimizes our economic
potential and social responsiveness and that impairs the total effectiveness of emergency preparedness,
response, and recovery. Interoperability is lacking and a fusion of physical and electronic mobility must
be seamlessly developed before we have optimized systems integration.
Transportation: movement of people, goods and information
Clifford R. Bragdon, Dean University College at Florida Tech, 2008, Transportation
Security, ed. C. Bragdon, p. 67
A systems approach to transportation that integrates all modes of movement (i.e., both physical and
electronic) is absolutely essential in developing an effective national preparedness plan.
Transcommunication was the term developed and recommended by a United Nations Habitat II task
force for addressing this subject area. For the readers of this book, transportation refers to the safe,
secure, sustainable, and efficient movement of people, goods, and information by air, land, and sea.
64
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 65 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation is the flow of people and goods
U.S. Department of Transportation, COMMERCIAL REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES:
APPLICATION TO TRANSPORTATION, Dec. 28, 2008. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://wwwghcc.msfc.nasa.gov/land/ncrst/dot_nasa_brochure.pdf.
Transportation is the flow of people and goods between geographically separated locations.
65
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 66 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation - Sub-Sectors
Transportation system sub-sectors
Pamela A. Collins & Ryan K. Baggett, Department of Homeland Security, 2009,
Homeland Security and Critical Infrastructure Protection, p. 95
The Transportation Systems Sector consists of six key subsectors, or modes:
1. Aviation includes aircraft, air traffic control systems, and approximately 450 commercial
airports and 19,000 additional airfields. This mode includes civil and joint use military airports,
heliports, short takeoff and landing ports, and seaplane bases.
2. Maritime Transportation System consists of about 95,000 miles of coastline, 361 ports, more
than 10,000 miles of navigable waterways, 3.4 million square miles of Exclusive Economic
Zone to secure, and intermodal landside connections, which allow the various modes of
transportation to move people and goods to, from, and on the water.
3. Highway encompasses more than four million miles of roadways and supporting
infrastructure. Vehicles include automobiles, buses, motorcycles, and all types of trucks.
4. Mass Transit includes multiple-occupancy vehicles, such as transit buses, trolleybuses,
vanpools, ferryboats, monorails, heavy (subway) and light rail, automated guideway transit,
inclined planes and cable cars designed to transport customers on local and regional routes.
5. Pipeline Systems include vast networks of pipeline that traverse hundreds of thousands of
miles throughout the country, carrying nearly all of the nation’s natural gas and about 65
percent of hazardous liquids, as well as various chemicals.
6. Rail consists of hundreds of railroads, more than 143,000 route-miles of track, more than 1.3
million freight cars, and roughly 20,000 locomotives.
Transportation includes highways, public transit, passenger rail, and highway safety
Daily Journal of Commerce (Portland, OR), February 14, 2012
Within that total, a six-year investment of $476 billion is proposed for surface transportation, which
includes highways, public transportation, passenger rail and highway safety.
66
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 67 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation – Carbon Sequestration
Transportation infrastructure includes carbon sequestration and storage
Matt Watson, (Sr. Energy Manager, Environmental Defense Fund), CARBON CAPTURE AND
SEQUESTRATION LEGISLATION. Hearing, May 12, 2011, 43.
Logistical hurdles for CCS [carbon dioxide sequestration and storage] may include obtaining
contracts for offsite land acquisition (including the availability of land), the need for funding
(including, for example, government subsidies), timing of available transportation infrastructure
and developing a site for secure long term storage.”
Carbon sequestration requires transportation infrastructure
John Litynski, (Resarcher, National Energy Technology Laboratory), ENVIRONMENT
INTERNATIONAL, 2008, 127.
This paper reviews the Validation Phase (Phase II) of the Department of Energy's Regional
Carbon Sequestration Partnerships initiative. In 2003, the U.S. Department of Energy created
a nationwide network of seven Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships (RCSP) to help
determine and implement the technology, infrastructure, and regulations most appropriate to
promote carbon sequestration in different regions of the nation. The objectives of the
Characterization Phase (Phase I) were to characterize the geologic and terrestrial
opportunities for carbon sequestration; to identify CO2 point sources within the territories of
the individual partnerships; to assess the transportation infrastructure needed for future
deployment; to evaluate CO2 capture technologies for existing and future power plants; and
to identify the most promising sequestration opportunities that would need to be validated
through a series of field projects.
Carbon sequestration requires transportation infrastructure
ICF International, DEVELOPING A PIPELINE INFRASTRUCTURE FOR CO2 CAPTURE
AND STORAGE: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES, Feb. 2009, 61.
This chapter will present the compression capacity, pipeline mileage and pipeline pumping
capacity needed for CCS transportation. The infrastructure analysis is based on the High and Low
Cases for CCS shown in the previous chapter. For the U.S. these infrastructure planning ranges for
CCS volumes are: 2015: 3 to 50 million tonnes; 2020: 25 to 150 million tonnes; 2030: 300 to 1,000
million tonnes. For Canada, the infrastructure planning ranges for CCS volumes are: 2015: 10 to 30
million tonnes; 2020: 30 to 70 million tonnes; 2030: 90 to 150 million tonnes. The translation of
these volumes into transportation infrastructure requirements depends on the location of the
CO2 sources and sinks and the degree to which the CO2 transportation system is built in an
integrated manner in which costs are minimized by combining flows along similar paths into
larger pipelines versus built in a piecemeal manner in which most CCS projects construct their
own pipeline system.
Infrastructure includes CO2 sequestration
Clemens Cremer, (Prof., Energy Policy, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), THE HYDROGEN
ECONOMY: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES, 2009, 194.
Implementing CCS would create a whole new value chain of plants with CO2 capture, of CO2
transport and of CO2 storage. Carbon dioxide transport could be performed by pipelines on land
67
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 68 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
or in the marine environment. For marine transport, ships could also be used. Creating a new CO2
infrastructure is a challenging task, similar to the build-up of a hydrogen infrastructure; that's why
a combined build-up should be envisaged, where possible.
68
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 69 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation – Includes Space
Transportation infrastructure includes space
Jeff Krukin, (Staff, NewSpace Nation), SHOULD THE U.S. GOVERNMENT HAVE A DEPARTMENT OF
SPACE?, Feb. 23, 2009. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.jeffkrukin.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=73&Itemid=1 .
The paper lays out the deficits of NASA's implementation of the Vision for Exploration (VSE)
announced by President George Bush in January 2004, and explains why NASA cannot possibly
succeed in building an affordable space transportation infrastructure and open the space
frontier.
Transportation includes space exploration
Michael Lembeck, (Dir., Northrup Grumman’s Space Exploration System), WHY SPACE EXPLORATION
IS IMPORTANT TO THE UNITED STATES, June 15, 2006. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.space.com/2481-space-exploration-important-united-states.html.
So maybe space exploration is important because of Teflon, Velcro, and Tang after all. But not
because they are rightly or wrongly identified as spin-offs from the space program. Tomorrow,
new Teflons, Velcros, and Tangs will follow along with the other new discoveries enabled by
NASA's transportation infrastructure. And they will ultimately be important because we can sell
them.
Space exploration is part of transportation infrastructure
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, ARES I UPPER STAGE, Aug. 8, 2007. Retrieved Mar. 8,
2012 from http://www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/detail/nasaNAS~9~9~58917~162762.
Under the goals of the Vision for Space Exploration, Ares I is a chief component of the cost-
effective space transportation infrastructure being developed by NASA's Constellation Program.
This transportation system will safely and reliably carry human explorers back to the moon, and
then onward to Mars and other destinations in the solar system.
Space Exploration is part of Transportation Infrastructure
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, CONSTELLATION PROGRAM, 2007. Retrieved
Mar. 8, 2012 from http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/constellation/ares/a5_factsheet.pdf.
Under the goals of NASA’s exploration mission, Ares V is a vital part of the cost-effective space
transportation infrastructure being developed by NASA’s Constellation Program to carry
human explorers back to the moon, and then onward to Mars and other destinations in the
solar system.
Transportation Infrastructure includes development of spaceports
Patricia Smith, (FAA Commissioner for Commercial Space Transportation), MEMORANDUM OF
AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE FAA AND NASA, May 8, 2002. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/FAA_NASA_MOA_Final_Si
gned_c.pdf.
The objective of this MOA [Memorandum of Agreement] is to establish an expanded working
relationship between NASA and the FAA, and to provide a mechanism for the most effective
use of limited resources in advancing the development of the national commercial space
69
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 70 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
transportation infrastructure. For the purposes of this MOA, commercial space transportation
infrastructure development includes activities associated with the research, design,
development, demonstration, and/or technology transfer of technologies, systems, equipment,
processes, operating concepts, and facilities associated with spaceports and ranges.
70
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 71 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation – Includes Space
Transportation Infrastructure involved in space tourism
Patrick Collins, (Prof., Azabu U., Japan), SPACE FUTURE, July 17, 2003. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012
from
http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/space_tourism_market_demand_and_the_transportation_i
nfrastructure.shtml.
It is a great pleasure and a great privilege to be invited to contribute to the Centenary celebration
of one of the truly world-changing inventions of the 20th century -- Orville and Wilbur Wright's
development of controlled, powered flight. It is also a particular pleasure to speak at the session
on space tourism, of which I am confident the theme will be recognized in coming years as the
most significant at this Symposium. The topic I was invited to discuss is the market demand and
transportation infrastructure for space tourism, but it seems only appropriate to begin by giving
some thought to the relation of this subject, passenger space travel, to the Wright brothers'
achievement and vision.
Developing passenger space travel requires transportation infrastructure
Patrick Collins, (Prof., Azabu U., Japan), SPACE FUTURE, July 17, 2003. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012
from
http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/space_tourism_market_demand_and_the_transportation_i
nfrastructure.shtml.
If the actual cost of developing the transportation infrastructure required for passenger space
travel was even ten times higher, this would be only of the same order of magnitude as the
international space station ( ISS ), which has little measurable economic value (particularly
since its future depends on an unreliable transportation system).
VSE requires the construction of a space transportation infrastructure
Paul Spudis, (Planetary Scientist, Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD), THE SPACE
REVIEW, Jan. 22, 2007. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.thespacereview.com/article/791/1.
The Vision for Space Exploration is different from any previous space policy. By design it is
incremental and cumulative. We make “steady progress” no matter how slowly we may be forced
to proceed at any given time by fiscal constraints. Small steps that build upon each other create
new capability over time. Our activities will teach us not merely how to survive, but how to
thrive off-planet. Such a task includes inhabiting planetary surfaces, doing useful work while we
are there, and extracting what we need from the material and energy resources we find. We will
use these new skills and techniques to build a space transportation infrastructure that permits
routine access to the Moon and all of cislunar space.
Vision of VSE includes a space transportation infrastructure
Paul Spudis, (Planetary Scientist, Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD), THE SPACE
REVIEW, Jan. 22, 2007. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.thespacereview.com/article/791/1.
We are going to the Moon for one clear and understandable reason—to be able to do everything
else that we want to do in space. The Moon is our school, laboratory, and foundry. The Vision
71
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 72 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
begins by building a highway through the heart of cislunar space, creating a transportation
infrastructure for diverse users: scientists, miners, sellers and buyers, and ultimately, settlers.
72
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 73 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation – Includes Space
Expanding Spaceflights requires transportation infrastructure
Paul Spudis, (Staff), SPACEREF, Sept. 15, 2009. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1349.
Routine access to these satellites and sensor platforms will revolutionize the spaceflight
paradigm from one-off satellites, launched on expendable rockets and then abandoned when
worn out, to the development and use of maintainable, upgradeable, and extensible systems.
The creation of this space transportation infrastructure can be scaled to needs and available
resources.
Construction, Improvement, Design and Engineering part of Space Transportation Development
U.S. CODE, 2012; Title 51, Subtitle V, Chapter 511. Retrieved Mar. 7, 2012 from Lexis.
§51101. Definitions: In this chapter [51 USCS §§ 51101 et seq.]-(1) the definitions in section 50501 of this title [51 USCS § 50501] apply. (2) "commercial space
transportation infrastructure development" includes--(A) construction, improvement, design, and
engineering of space transportation infrastructure in the United States; and (B) technical studies to
define how new or enhanced space transportation infrastructure can best meet the needs of the
United States commercial space transportation industry.
Expanding Space Transportation Infrastructure essential to Space-Related Activities
U.S. CODE, 2012; Title 51, Subtitle II, Chapter 201, Subchapter I, Paragraph 8. Retrieved Mar. 7, 2012
from Lexis.
The strengthening and expansion of the Nation's space transportation infrastructure, including
the enhancement of launch sites and launch site support facilities, are essential to support the
full range of the Nation's space-related activities.
73
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 74 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Pipelines Are Transportation
Pipelines are a form of transportation
Preston L. Schiller, Eric C. Bruun & Jeffrey R. Kenworthy, Professors at Queen’s
University, University of Pennsylvania & Curtin University, 2010, An Introduction to
Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation, p. 125
Over time, improved technologies and vehicle designs lowered transport costs. During the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, motorization increased the speed and capacity of oceangoing vessels considerably, while the speed and cargo capacity of land-based modes,
especially trains, similarly increased. Trains using boxcars and flatcars for solid cargo, and
tanker cars for liquid and gaseous cargoes, could move huge quantities to many more places
faster than 19th century canal barges. Large quantities of liquids and gases could be
inexpensively moved by pipelines over long distances. These improvements joined with
several nation-specific, as well as international economic and policy, factors to engender a
vast expansion of freight movement in recent decades. In order to understand this
development, as well as how freight movement can become more sustainable, it is necessary to
review its conventions.
Pipelines are a mode of transportation
Allan mcdougall & Robert Radvanovsky, Co-Director-Evolutionary Security
Management & Risk Manager, 2008, Transportation Systems Security, p. 12
Pipelines can be another mode of transportation, as they view a transportation mechanism
for moving fuel or raw goods in either compressed gaseous or liquid form. Pipelines move a
product within a stationary device, the pipe, whereas traditional mechanisms involve keeping
the persons or good on board or within a moving medium. For the purpose of this work and
given the size of the work already, we will forego further detailed examination of this particular
perspective, as this would complicate matters. This work will only regard transportation
systems with the standard view of transporting people or things from one point to another.
Pipelines are topical. It’s the sole item we add to their list.
Church ‘3
(et al – Professor Rick Church of UC Santa Barbara and has just been elected to the Board of Directors of the Western Regional Science
Association (WRSA). Founded in 1961, the WRSA is an international multidisciplinary group of university scholars and government and
private-sector practitioners dedicated to the scientific analysis of regions. The rest of the CTI panel includes: Bruce Ralston, University
of Tennessee; Jeff Western, Director of Infrastructure Security, Wisconsin DOT; Benjamin Zhan, Texas State University-San Marcosl
Meetings — CTI 2003 – Critical Transportation Infrastructure – Specialist Meeting, 2003 December 1-2 –
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/ncrst/meetings/20031201SBA-CTI2003/first.html)
There are many classes of infrastructure — a background page on CIP enumerates these. Our focus
is on transportation infrastructure , recognizing that algorithmically, methods developed for one class
of infrastructure may be adaptable to another. There is also a focus on spatial attributes of the
transportation system, i.e. geographic and topological characteristics of the transportation links and
the places (nodes) served by them, and an emphasis on spatial technologies such as remote sensing and
GIS. Transportation infrastructure includes for our purposes road, rail, air and waterway
infrastructure pipelines terminals, intermodal facilities and warehouses delivery systems control
74
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 75 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
systems infrastructure provisions to serve needs of critical hazardous/non-hazardous materials in
transit This meeting brings together a small group (about 35) of public/private sector experts and
academics. Over two days of presentations, demonstrations and discussions, we shall explore a variety
of perspectives, with the aims of (a) broadening participants' appreciation of the many facets of the
issue, (b) stimulating cross-cutting research, and (c) synthesizing problem/research approaches into a
framework. Following the meeting we will publish a web-based and/or printed compilation of papers.
Three speakers will be selected for a special CTI-CIP session of the Transportation Research Board
(TRB) annual meeting in
Washington DC, 2004 January 11-15.
75
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 76 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Pipelines Are Transportation
Transportation includes shipping GOODS. We don’t de-limit, because we’re only air,
rail, road, maritime, and people
NDU Report ‘11
National Defense University Fort McNair, Washington, D. C. – The Industrial College of the Armed Forces – Final Report:
Transportation Industry – Spring 2011 – panelists include: Mrs. Stacy Cummings, Department of the Navy. Seminar Leader LtCol
Anthony Barnes. U.S. Marine Coips Mr. William Boden, Computer Sciences Corporation, (CSC) LtCol Mike Brantley, U.S. Air Force
Mr. Michael Breslin, Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Mr. Charles E. Brown, Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) Mr. Bart
Merkley, Department of Homeland Security (DHS) – http://www.ndu.edu/icaf/programs/academic/industry/reports/2011/pdf/icaf-isreport-transportation-2011.pdf
The United States has the largest transportation system in the world with an extensive physical infrastructure that
moves both people and freight . As an industry it consists of five modes: aviation, highway, maritime,
pipeline and rail. In 2009, transportation related goods and services contributed $1.2 trillion to the U.S. Gross Domestic Product and
employed over 3.5 million people.3 The U.S. transportation infrastructure includes 4 million miles of public roads, 160,000 miles of railroad
track, 25,000 miles of navigable waterways, 9,800 coastal and inland waterway facilities, nearly 400,000 miles of oil and fuel pipelines, and
5,200 public-use airports.5 The aviation industry provides for the movement of passengers and freight by both large
and small air providers. In 2010, over 785 million passengers traveled by air.6 The economic downtiin had a significant impact on the airline
industry; passenger miles are still down from their total of 81 million in 2008.7 In 2009. 27 percent of international freight, both imports and
exports, moved by air.8 The U.S. National Highway
System is made up of the Interstate Highway System, arterial roads that
support commerce and trade, and the Strategic Highway Network (STRAHNET), which are highways important to military mobilization,
and roads that connect inteimodal facilities.9 It handles a tremendous amount of vehicular traffic to include heavy equipment. The total vehicle
miles traveled on all U.S. public roads increased from about 1.5 trillion miles in 1980 to more than 2.5 trillion miles in 2009. Based on current
and historical trends, traffic congestion in metropolitan areas is expected to increase, due to population growth, urbanization, increasing freight
traffic, and roadway maintenance activities.10 The U.S. water
transportation industry serves the needs of both foreign and
domestic commerce and includes companies that cany freight or passengers on the open seas or inland waterways, offer towing services,
charter vessels, and operate canals and terminals. In 2009, U.S. water trades (foreign and domestic) amounted to 2.0 billion metric tons. In
2009, container trade accounted for 17 percent of U.S. waterbome foreign trade, up from 14 percent five years before. Ir 2009, 44 percent of
U.S. foreign trade by value was moved by vessel, up from 42 percent five yean earlier. In 2009. 6,996 oceangoing vessels made 55,560 calls at
U.S. ports. The pipeline infrastructure, comprised of over 168,000 miles of liquid pipelines and 217,000 miles of gas pipeline, carries
over 71 percent of petroleum transported in the United States and is one of the most strategically important parts of the transportation
network relative to energy distribution.13 Typically the oil or gas production company owns a significant share of the transportation pipeline
system which is operated commercially. They transport
businesses around the country.
oil and natural gas to and from refineries and for distribution to homes and
Transportation includes pipelines
Encyclopedia of the Nations ‘12
Encyclopedia of the Nations; Europe; Estonia – http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/Estonia-INFRASTRUCTUREPOWER-AND-COMMUNICATIONS.html
The transportation infrastructure
includes 1,018 kilometers (634 miles) of railroads but only 132 kilometers (82 miles) of
electrified rail lines. There are 10,935 kilometers (6,835 miles) of paved roads, including 75 kilometers (47 miles) of expressways. Estonia
had 320 kilometers (200 miles) of navigable waterways and 420 kilometers (263 miles) of natural gas pipelines in 1992. All
international flights use the Tallinn Airport, and there are several ports on the Baltic Sea, the port of Tallinn being the third largest in the Baltic
Sea. A two-thirds stake in the state-run Eesti Raudtee railroad company was expected to be sold in a tender (possibly to RailAmerica) and the
second-largest city, Tartu, was also expected to sell its public transportation company AS Liikor to a private investor in 2000.
76
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 77 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Pipelines are transportation infrastructure – which include movements of goods.
Encyclo Center ‘9
Encyclocenter is a new Article Directory site and is pleased to provide original and authoritative articles written by experts in their
respective fields of expertise. March 31 – http://www.encyclocenter.com/Transportation-Transport-24131.html
Transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. Transportation infrastructure
includes the transport networks like roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals, pipelines and the nodes or terminals, such
as airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports.
77
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 78 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Pipelines Are Transportation
Homeland Security Networks consider pipelines to be “transportation infrastructure”
Lowenberg ‘5
(et al; TIMOTHY J. LOWENBERG; Major General, The Adjutant General Director, Washington Military Department Washington
Homeland Security Advisor – The Washington Statewide Homeland Security Strategic Plan – 2/22/2005 –
http://okanogandem.org/documents/Washington/HLS%20Strategic%20Plan.pdf)
Transportation – The state transportation
infrastructure includes aviation, maritime, rail, bridges, highways,
trucking, pipelines, and mass transit systems. There is a robust transportation system in Washington State, built upon a
network of 81,300 miles of federal, state, and local roads. Washington State has the nation’s largest fleet of ferries. The state is also served by
approximately 2,075 route miles of Class I railroad track and 1,115 miles of track operated by 17 short-line railroads, and two Amtrak Cascade
trains. Washington State has 76 public port districts. The combined ports of Seattle and Tacoma are the second-largest container load centers
in the United States. Agricultural commodities and other goods are also transported throughout the Puget Sound and river systems. We have
127 public airports, three seaplane bases, Seattle-Tacoma and Spokane International Airports, and a number of regional transportation airports.
Pipelines are Transportation
Christopher Carney, (U.S. Rep., Pennsylvania), UNCLOGGING PIPELINE SECURITY: ARE THE LINES OF
RESPONSIBILITY CLEAR?, Hearing, Apr. 19, 2010, 1.
The National pipeline system is an extensive mode of transportation. Virtually all the critical
pipeline infrastructure is owned or operated by private entities. However, the Federal
Government is responsible for regulating, securing and ensuring the safety of the National
pipeline system.
Pipelines are Transportation
Cynthia Quarterman, (Administrator, U.S. Dept. of Transportation’s Hazardous Material Safety
Administration), DOMESTIC OIL AND NATURAL GAS: ALASKAN RESOURCES, ACCESS AND
INFRASTRUCTURE, June 2, 2011. Retrieved Feb. 25, 2012 from
http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/staticfiles/PHMSA/DownloadableFiles/Hearing_Alaska_06_02_2011.pdf.
Chairman Lamborn, Ranking Member Holt, members of the Subcommittee, thank you for the
opportunity to appear today to discuss the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration’s (PHMSA) oversight of America’s 2.5-million-mile energy pipeline system. Safety
is the number one priority of Secretary Ray LaHood, myself and the employees of PHMSA and we
are all strongly committed to reducing transportation risks to the public and environment. Our
Nation’s reliance on the safe and environmentally sound transportation of energy fuels and
hazardous materials is increasing.
Pipelines are Transportation
Frank Baker, (Public Relations, British Petroleum), BP PIPELINES: AN ENERGY LIFELINE, Nov. 30. 2009.
Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/STAGING/global_assets/downloads/B/BPM_05
two_pipelines.pdf.
Beneath the ground in America lays a vast network of pipelines that provide an extensive and
efficient transportation infrastructure that is virtually invisible. With about five percent of the
global population, America consumes a staggering one-fourth of the world’s daily energy
production, more than 840 million gallons of petroleum products.
78
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 79 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Pipelines are Transportation
Transportation infrastructure includes pipelines Iowa Public Television, FOSSIL FUELS, 2004.
Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from http://www.iptv.org/exploremore/energy/profiles/fossil_fuels.cfm.
Fossil fuels are also overwhelmingly responsible for fueling our transportation system.
Petroleum-based fuels are the standard. Our country’s entire transportation infrastructure of
pipelines and gas stations is built around fossil fuels. You can drive across the country and find a
gas station to fill up your car. That infrastructure is one of the hurdles preventing new fuel sources
from competing with fossil fuels.
79
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 80 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Pipelines Are Transportation
Pipelines are Transportation
Transportation infrastructure includes pipelines John D. Porcari, (Deputy Secretary, U.S. Dept. of
Transportation), Sept. 15, 2010, ENBRIDGE PIPELINE OIL SPILL. Retrieved Feb. 25, 2012 from
http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/staticfiles/PHMSA/DownloadableFiles/DOTs%20Response%20to%20Enbridge
%20Failure_Sept%2015%202010.pdf.
The Department is actively working to ensure the safety and reliability of the nation’s pipeline
transportation infrastructure and prevent spills on the 174,000 miles of hazardous liquid pipelines it
oversees. Over the past 20 years, all the traditional measures of risk exposure have been rising -population, energy consumption, pipeline ton-miles. At the same time, the number of significant
incidents involving onshore hazardous liquid pipelines has declined 28%, accompanying a decrease of
57% of gross barrels spilled.
Pipelines are Transportation
NaturalGas.org, THE TRANSPORTATION OF NATURAL GAS, Mar. 14, 2010. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012
from http://www.naturalgas.org/naturalgas/transport.asp.
As natural gas use increases, so does the need to have transportation infrastructure in place to
supply the increased demand. This means that pipeline companies are constantly assessing the
flow of natural gas across the U.S., and building pipelines to allow transportation of natural gas
to those areas that are underserved.
Pipelines are Transportation
Olympic Pipeline, BEING A GOOD NEIGHBOR, Mar. 25, 2009. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.olympicpipeline.com/neighbor_home.html.
To meet both household and industrial consumption, pipelines silently transport half of all the
petroleum products shipped domestically. Pipelines provide an extensive and efficient
transportation infrastructure that is virtually invisible. They are an underground transportation
system which connect the nation's petroleum producing, refining and marketing areas. The use
of pipelines helps keep the costs of gasoline and other petroleum products down. Pipelines are
vital to our nation's economy.
Pipelines are Transportation
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), CALL TO ACTION TO IMPROVE THE
SAFETY OF THE NATION’S ENERGY PIPELINE SYSTEM, Apr. 13, 2011. Retrieved Feb. 25, 2012 from
http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/staticfiles/PHMSA/DownloadableFiles/110404%20Action%20Plan%2
0Executive%20Version%20_2.pdf.
Like other aspects of America’s transportation infrastructure, the pipeline system is aging and
needs a comprehensive evaluation of its fitness for service. Investments that are made now will
ensure the safety of the American people and the integrity of the pipeline infrastructure for
future generations.
80
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 81 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Pipelines are Transportation
Rick Church, (Prof., Geography, U. California at Santa Barbara), CRITICAL
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE, 2003. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/ncrst/meetings/20031201SBA-CTI2003/first.html.
Transportation infrastructure includes for our purposes: road, rail, air and waterway infrastructure;
pipelines; terminals, intermodal facilities and warehouses; delivery systems; control systems;
infrastructure provisions to serve needs of critical hazardous/non-hazardous materials in transit
81
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 82 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Does Not Include Pipelines
Infrastructure” has multiple categories --- “transportation” is distinct from energy,
rendering pipeline Affs not topical.
Heintz 9
(James, Associate Research Professor and Associate Director – Political Economy Research Institute, et al., “How Infrastructure
Investments Support the U.S. Economy: Employment, Productivity and Growth”, January,
http://americanmanufacturing.org/files/peri_aam_finaljan16_new.pdf)
II. ASSESSMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS FOR THE U.S.
In the previous section we looked at trends and patterns of public investment since 1950. We now examine what levels of
infrastructure investment are required in the future to address expected needs and to fill the gap left by inadequate rates of past
investment. We will then use this assessment of needs to develop policy scenarios and to estimate the employment impacts of an expanded
infrastructure investment program. We will show, in later sections of the report, that a program of accelerated investment which aims to
eliminate the country’s infrastructure deficit can generate millions of new jobs.
In this section we focus on four broad categories of infrastructure and specific areas of investment within each
category. The infrastructure categories are:
1. Transportation: the road system; railroads; aviation; mass transit; and inland waterways and levees;
2. Public school buildings;
3. Water infrastructure: drinking water, wastewater, and dams ;
4. Energy: electrical transmission, through all sources, including renewables, and natural gas pipeline
construction.
These categories constitute the most important components of U.S. economic infrastructure. In addition, public schools represent one of
the most important pillars of the country’s social infrastructure, one with important implications for the long-run productivity of the
economy’s human resources. Taken together, we capture the most important assets that collectively reflect the state of the nation’s
infrastructure.
In this section, we examine each of these areas in turn and then pull the information together to provide a more complete picture of
infrastructure needs.
Transportation
Highways, Roads and Bridges
The nation’s highways, roads, and bridges constitute the single most important transportation system for the U.S. population and economy. According to the Federal Highway Administration, the U.S. maintains 4 million
miles of roads and nearly 600,000 bridges (Department of Transportation, 2006). In dollar terms, the Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that the current value of public assets in road infrastructure totals $2.6
trillion. The Department of Transportation periodically evaluates the condition of the country’s roads, bridges, and transit systems in its report Status of the Nation’s Highways, Bridges, and Transit. According to the
most report, 85 percent of roads are in ‘acceptable condition’ but only 44 percent were deemed to be in ‘good condition’. In 2004, 26.7 percent of bridges were considered to be structurally deficient and 13.6 percent were
‘functionally obsolete.’
The cost to maintain the U.S. road system in its current condition is estimated to be $78.8 billion a year. Current levels of annual investment are around $70.3 billion, a gap of $8.5 billion. The Department of
Transportation has conducted research into the level of investment needed to minimize the costs associated with prolonged travel times, vehicle damage, accidents, and excessive emissions. Bringing the system up to this
high-quality standard would require annual investment of $131.7 billion, an increase of $61.4 billion over current levels (Department of Transportation, 2006).
Freight and intercity rail
By 2035, demand for freight rail transportation is expected to double (AAR, 2007). Maintaining adequate infrastructure is essential if freight rail is to continue to provide a more environmentally benign alternative to
long-distance trucking. Intercity passenger rail, mostly on trains operated by Amtrak, currently links over 500 cities nationwide and provides a viable alternative to air and road transport (Department of Transportation,
2007). Insufficient capital investment in freight and intercity rail would compromise the future contributions of railroads to the U.S. economy. In turn, these investment gaps would slow down the transition to a cleanenergy economy.
Unlike road transportation, rail infrastructure is largely financed by private companies. Since the railroads were deregulated in the late 1970s, securing the funds for ongoing capital improvements has been a challenge.
It is unclear to what extent railroad companies will be able to finance future fixed capital requirements from ongoing revenues (ASCE, 2005). If railroads cannot finance sufficient capital improvements, the growth in
demand for rail services would shift onto the road system—increasing congestion, road maintenance costs, as well as increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
A recent study by the Association of American Railroads projects that infrastructure investment of $148 billion is required in the next 28 years to be able to meet the projected level of demand (AAR, 2007). This
translates into a capital investment need of $5.3 billion per year. The American Society of Civil Engineers estimates that investment needs of freight rail and intercity systems would total $12-13 billion a year over the
next 20 years (ASCE, 2005). However, this estimate includes investments that would have taken place anyway, given historical trends. Therefore, we use the $5.3 billion figure as the best available estimate of the need for
additional rail infrastructure in the future.
Aviation
According to forecasts compiled by the Federal Aviation Administration, the number of passengers flying on commercial airlines is expected to increases at an annual rate of 3.0 percent a year from 2008 to 2025 (FAA,
2008). By the end of this period, annual passenger travel is expected to reach 1.3 billion. This increase in volume will require capital investments in airport capacity and air traffic control systems if congestion and delays
are to be minimized and passenger safety maintained. Updating the traffic control system has been ongoing since the mid-1980s, but the process has taken longer and required more investment than initially thought
(ASCE, 2005).
According to the results of a survey administered to the nation’s 100 largest airports by the Airports Council International (North American branch), annual capital investment needs over the period 2007-2011 total
$17.5 billion (ACI, 2007). This represents a $3.2 billion increase over the assessment of annual investment needs from 2005 to 2009. The FAA estimates the shortfall in investment funds available to be somewhat lower: $1
billion per year from 2006-2011, based on airport master plans and ACI estimates (GAO, 2007). However, neither set of estimates include capital investment for security improvements and air traffic control systems, as
documented by the ASCE (2005). Therefore, we use $3.2 billion a year in additional infrastructure as a reasonable estimate of investment needs in the absence of more comprehensive data.
Mass transit
Increased usage of public transportation is one of the most efficient ways to promote energy conservation in the United States. It is therefore a positive development that public transportation has been growing steadily in
recent years. The increase in demand for public transportation accelerated sharply over 2007-08, as gas prices at the pump rose as high as $4.00 a gallon. But more generally, over the decade 1996-2005, passenger miles
traveled with various forms of public transportation increased by over 20 percent (Department of Transportation, 2007) and usage is expected to rise faster in the future. Capital investments in transit have increased in
recent years, particularly at the state and local level (Department of Transportation, 2006).
Despite these improvements, public investment must increase further if the transit system is to be maintained, and beyond this, if public transportation is to become an increasingly significant means of promoting energy
conservation. According to the 2006 Status of the Nation’s Highways, Bridges, and Transit, transit investments must total $15.8 billion a year just to maintain the current operating system. This would represent an
increase of $3.2 billion a year over current levels. But to meet government operational and performance targets by 2024, annual investments must grow to $21.8 billion, requiring an additional $9.2 billion.
Inland waterways and levees
Approximately 2.6 billion short tons of commodities are transported on U.S. navigable waterways each year—an extremely cost-efficient transportation system (Army Corps of Engineers, 2005). The Army Corps of
Engineers maintains and operates the inland waterway system which includes 257 lock systems nationwide, the average age of which is 55 years. According to the American Society of Civil Engineers, by 2020 80 percent
of the lock systems will be functionally obsolete without new infrastructure investments (ASCE, 2005). The estimated cost of updating all the lock systems is $125 billion.
In addition, the Army Corps of Engineers assess the state of the nation’s levees and flood control systems, amounting to 2,000 levees totaling 13,000 miles, which include projects built and maintained by the Corps of
Engineers; projects built by the Corps of Engineers and subsequently transferred to a local owner to maintain; and projects built by local communities. In 2007, the Corps identified 122 levees, across the country, which
are in need of additional maintenance and repair.4 The investment needed to update the lock system combined with an additional $30 billion to improve the nation’s levees would total $155 billion, or about $6.2 billion
annually over the next 25 years.
82
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 83 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Does Not Include Pipelines
Pipelines fall into a category of Energy infrastructure – which is distinct from
transportation
Akinwale ‘10
(Akeem Ayofe, Professor of Sociology – Covenant University (Nigeria), “The Menace of Inadequate Infrastructure in Nigeria”, African
Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation, and Development, 2(3), p. 209-210)
3. The Concept of Infrastructure
Research on infrastructure dwells on different issues such as education, roads, water supply, power grids, telecommunications, and
hospitals (Abosedra et al, 2009; Mandel, 2008; Frischmann, 2007; CBN, 2003; Pendse, 1980). Major
infrastructures can be
classified into the following categories :
1. Energy/Power Infrastructure: electricity, gas and petroleum
pipelines
2. Transportation Infrastructure: surface roads, rail system, ports,
3. Water Infrastructure: Piped water and irrigation
4. Communication Infrastructure: mass media, internet, phones, and postal services
5. Health Infrastructure: primary, secondary and tertiary heath care services
6. Education Infrastructure: all categories of schools and higher institutions
and aviation
Including pipelines as transportation de-limits – brings in a host of utilities infrastructure
Affs.
Inderst ‘9
(Georg, Financial Affairs Division – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Pension Fund Investment in
Infrastructure”, OECD Working Paper, No. 32, January, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/41/9/42052208.pdf)
Definition of infrastructure assets
The definition of infrastructure investment seems intuitive. The OECD uses a simple and general
definition for infrastructure as the system of public works in a country, state or region, including roads, utility
lines and public buildings. A standard dictionary‘s definition is:
―The basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society, such as transportation and
communications systems, water and power lines, and public institutions including schools, post offices, and prisons.‖ (American Heritage
Dictionary).
Infrastructure assets are traditionally defined by their physical characteristics . One can split them
into two main categories, and a range of sectors within those:
Economic infrastructure
transport (e.g. toll roads, airports, seaport, tunnels, bridges, metro, rail systems)
utilities (e.g. water supply, sewage system, energy distribution networks, power plants, pipelines ,
gas storage)
Social infrastructure
education facilities
There is a lot of variety within infrastructure if it is defined by its physical nature, and people disagree what exactly should or should not
count as infrastructure asset. For example, do utility companies count as infrastructure? When their activities span production,
distribution and networks, where is the dividing line? More generally, where does public infrastructure end and private infrastructure
start?
83
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 84 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Does Not Include Pipelines
Pipelines are not “transportation infrastructure” --- they’re “energy”
US Chamber of Commerce ‘10
(United States Chamber of Commerce, “Transportation Performance Index – Summary Report”, 9-23,
http://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/lra/files/LRA_TPI%20_Summary_Report%20Final%20092110. pdf)
Step 1 –
Definition : Transportation Infrastructure
It is important to establish a definition of transportation infrastructure in order to establish the scope
of the index.
General Definition: Moving people and goods by air, water, road, and rail.
Technical Definition: The fixed facilities―roadway segments, railway tracks, public transportation terminals,
harbors, and airports―flow entities―people, vehicles, container units, railroad cars―and control systems that permit
people and goods to traverse geographical space in a timely, efficient manner for an intended purpose.
Transportation modes include highway, public transportation, aviation, freight rail, marine, and
intermodal.
Note that pipeline infrastructure is not included in this definition. For purposes of the Infrastructure
Performance Index it is considered
an element of energy infrastructure .
Too Many Subsets of Pipelines --- there’s oil, gas, and sub-specifications
Pipeline 101 ‘7
(“Overview”, http://www.pipeline101.com/overview/energy-pl.html)
How Many Pipelines are There?
There are two general types of energy pipelines – oil pipelines and natural gas pipelines. Within each group
are subsets that serve very specific portions of the energy marketplace.
Within the oil pipeline network there are both crude
oil lines and
refined
product lines.
Pipelines can be built in any region, multiplying type by location --- tens of thousands
exist
Corbin ‘12 (
(Cristina, Reporter – Fox News, “Vast Network of Pipelines Already in Place in U.S.”, Student News Daily, 2-2,
http://www.studentnewsdaily.com/daily-news-article/vast-network-of-pipelines-already-in-place-in-u-s/)
“There’s no shortage of energy pipelines,” Dan Kish, senior vice president for policy at the Institute for
Energy Research, told FoxNews.com. “This pipeline would be better than 1.9 million miles of pipeline already in the United States.
It’s newer and has the best technology.” Pipelines in the U.S. Maps of the U.S. energy pipeline system show a vast abundance of crude oil
pipelines crossing through states like Montana to Minnesota to Texas. [NOTE: Map on left too small to read which types of pipelines
each color represents; this is to give you a general understanding of where most of our pipelines are located. For a detailed map, click
here and scroll down.] Major oil pipelines include a 9,467-mile network operated by Magellan Pipeline Co. LLC; a 7,833-mile system
owned by MidAmerican Energy Company; and 7,646 miles of pipeline owned by Plains All-American Pipeline LP. Other top oil pipeline
companies include ConocoPhillips with 6,027 miles and Colonial Pipelines with 5,596 miles. Kish said underground pipelines are the
safest way to transport crude oil, though he acknowledged that “whenever you have any kind of human endeavor, you have potential
problems and they do occur.” “We have
tens of thousands of pipeline and I don’t think there’s any good evidence that
pipelines are a significant impact on ecosystems to the point that they can’t adapt,” said Kenneth Green, resident scholar at
the A merican E nterprise I nstitute.
84
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 85 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation - Not Bicycles
Bicycles are not transportation
Mary Peters, (U.S. Secretary of Transportation), PBS NEWSHOUR, Aug. 15, 2007. Retrieved
Mar. 8, 2012 from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/transportation/july-dec07/infrastructure_0815.html.
There's about probably some 10 percent to 20 percent of the current spending that is going to
projects that really are not transportation, directly transportation-related. Some of that money
is being spent on things, as I said earlier, like bike paths or trails.
85
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 86 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Infrastructure***
86
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 87 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure - Many Meanings
“Infrastructure” has multiple meanings
Rodney Howes & Herbert Robinson, Professors London South Bank University, 2009,
Infrastructure for the Built Environment: Global Procurement Strategies, p. 14
The term “infrastructure” is often ambiguous as it is widely used in different context. In every day
usage, it tends to refer to a wide range of things from military installations, information technology,
buildings to physical networks such as transportation and water systems. Development economists
often refer to infrastructure as “social overhead capital” described as investments in networks such as
transportation, water and sewerage, power, communication and irrigation systems.
Multiple meanings of infrastructure
Rodney Howes & Herbert Robinson, Professors London South Bank University, 2009,
Infrastructure for the Built Environment: Global Procurement Strategies, p. 14
Sloman defined infrastructure as “the facilities, support services, skills, and experience that supports a
particular industry.” The New Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus defined infrastructure as “the basic
structure of an organization, systems, etc., or the stock of fixed capital equipment in a country
including factories, roads, schools, etc. considered as a determinant of economic growth.” Miller
(2000) defined the term “infrastructure” in a broad sense to mean collectively: capital facilities such as
buildings, housing, factories and other structures which provide shelter; the transportation of people,
goods and information; and the provision of public services and utilities such as water, waste removal
and environmental restoration. These variations illustrate the considerable difficulties in trying to
understand the concept of infrastructure, and its operationalization for policymaking. It also reflects
the need for a holistic approach in defining the concept of infrastructure.
Infrastructure Defined by Congress
John Moteff, Claudia Copeland, and John Fischer. Resources, Science, and Industry Division. Congressional
Research Service. ―Critical Infrastructures: What Makes an Infrastructure Critical? January 29, 2003. Accessed
online: http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RL31556.pdf
The Council established by P.L. 98-501 provided yet another definition of infrastructure and
included nine categories of systems in its analyses: highways, streets, roads, and bridges;
airports and airways; public transit; intermodal transportation (the interface between modes);
water supply; wastewater treatment; water resources; solid waste; and hazardous waste
services. These categories, the Council said, have strong links to economic development and
generally have a tradition of public sector involvement. Facilities have high fixed costs and long
economic lives. Taken as a whole, according to the Council, the services that they provide ―form
the underpinnings of the nation‘s defense, a strong economy, and our health and safety.‖35
Infrastructure definition is broad
Roger Kemp, (City Manager, Berlin, Connecticut), HOW SAFE IS AMERICA’S
INFRASTRUCTURE?, 2009, 22.
87
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 88 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
The term infrastructure refers to the basic facilities and installations necessary for society to
operate. It includes transportation and communication systems (highways, airports, bridges,
telephone lines, cellular telephone towers, post offices, and so forth); educational and health
facilities, water, gas, and electrical systems (dams, power lines, power plants, aqueducts, and
the like); and miscellaneous facilities such as prisons, asylums, national park structures, and
other improvements to real property owned by government.
Infrastructure includes many things
Nathan Musick, (Economist, Congressional Budget Office), PUBLIC SPENDING ON
TRANSPORTATION AND WATER INFRASTRUCTURE, 2010, iii.
The nation's transportation and water infrastructure—its highways, airports, water supply
systems, wastewater treatment plants, and other facilities—plays a vital role in the economy.
Infrastructure is an expansive term
Jeffrey W. Monroe, (Editor), DICTIONARY OF MARITIME AND TRANSPORTATION TERMS, 2005, 223.
Infrastructure: System of roads, waterways, airfields, ports, and/or telecommunication networks
in a certain area.
88
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 89 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure – Many Meanings
Infrastructure is an expansive term
Kathleen Thompson Hill, (Visiting Scholar, U. of Berkeley’s Institute of Governmental Studies),
FACTS ON FILE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN POLITICS, 2001, 147. 147.
Infrastructure: The American network of highways, bridges, rail systems, and anything else that
connects parts of the vast United States, its utilities, and economies.
Infrastructure means many things
Sidney Landau, (Sr. Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd ed., 2008, 447.
Infrastructure: The basic structure of an organization or system which is necessary for its
operation, esp. public water, energy, and systems for communication and transport.
List of infrastructure items
Nathan Musick, (Economist, Congressional Budget Office), PUBLIC SPENDING ON
TRANSPORTATION AND WATER INFRASTRUCTURE, 2010, ix.
For the purposes of this study, transportation and water infrastructure encompasses
infrastructure for all forms of surface transportation (highways, mass transit, rail, and
waterways), aviation, water resources (such as dams and levees), and water distribution and
wastewater treatment.
Infrastructure refers to fixed assets
Jay M. Shafritz, (Editor), THE HARPERCOLLINS DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
AND POLITICS, 1992, 296.
Infrastructure: A general term for a jurisdiction’s fixed assets, such as bridges, highways,
tunnels, and water treatment plant.
Infrastructure includes power plants
William Safire, (Staff, New York Times), SAFIRE’S POLITICAL DICTIONARY, 2008, 344.
Infrastructure: A political entity’s skeleton: the roads, communication systems, schools, power
plants, and other facilities on which a modern community depends.
Infrastructure refers to underlying foundation
Erin McKean, (Sr. Editor), THE OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2003, 765
Infrastructure: The basic structural foundations of a society or enterprise; substructure or
foundation.
Infrastructure refers to underlying foundation
Kathleen Thompson Hill, (Visiting Scholar, U. of Berkeley’s Institute of Governmental Studies),
FACTS ON FILE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN POLITICS, 2001, 147.
Infrastructure: Substructure or underlying foundation.
89
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 90 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure means roads and bridges
Erin McKean, (Sr. Editor), THE OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2003, 765
Infrastructure: Roads, bridges, sewers, etc., regarded as a country’s economic
foundation.
90
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 91 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure – Includes Hydrogen
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Jeff Wise, (Staff, Popular Mechanics), RENEWABLE ENERGY: OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS, 2009, 111.
When assessing the State of the Union in 2003, President Bush declared it was time to take a
crucial step toward protecting our environment. He announced a $1.2 billion initiative to begin
developing a national hydrogen infrastructure: a coast-to-coast network of facilities that would
produce and distribute the hydrogen for powering hundreds of millions of fuel cell vehicles.
Backed by a national commitment, he said, "Our scientists and engineers will overcome obstacles
to taking these cars from laboratory to showroom, so that the first car driven by a child born
today could be powered by hydrogen, and pollution-free."
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
John Ogden, (Prof., Environmental Science, U. of California, Davis), THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY:
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES, 2009, 464.
To design and cost hydrogen infrastructure, it is necessary to specify where hydrogen demand
would occur. We assume that early hydrogen infrastructure is likely to be built in a phased or
regionalised manner where hydrogen vehicles and stations are initially introduced in selected
large cities, beginning with those cities like Los Angeles and New York (with interest and
motivation to implement hydrogen) and moving to other cities over time.
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
John Ogden, (Prof., Environmental Science, U. of California, Davis), THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY:
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES, 2009, 475-476.
We find that the cumulative investment needed to reach this 'break-even' year is about $23
billion. (After this time, the cash flow is positive, so the net effect on the economy is
positive. Thus $23 billion could be seen as the amount of support that would be needed to
bring the H2 FCVs to economic parity with gasoline vehicles.) The total investment in extra
vehicle first costs over this 11-year period is about $40 billion, while the total capital investment
in hydrogen infrastructure to 2023 is about $8 billion.
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Martin Wietschel, (Coordinator, Energy Economics Unit, Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and
Innovation Research), THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES, 2009, 258.
There are numerous demonstration projects for the use of hydrogen in the transport sector,
with the aims of gaining first experiences with the operation of hydrogen vehicles, testing a
hydrogen infrastructure (i.e., hydrogen supply and operation of refuelling stations) under
real-world conditions and promoting public perception and acceptance. Hydrogen refuelling
stations can be separated into stationary and mobile ones. Mobile stations demand less
capital investment, allow flexible refuelling and are ideal for fuel-cell vehicle
demonstrations. They supply compressed hydrogen to hydrogen refuelling stations, thus
being suitable for mother—daughter stations.
91
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 92 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Michael Hordeski, (Engineer, Formerly with NASA), HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS:
ADVANCES IN TRANSPORTATION AND POWER, 2009, 124.
The problems facing the development of a hydrogen infrastructure include the lack of demand
for cars and trucks with limited fueling options and any incentive to invest in a fueling
infrastructure unless there are enough vehicles on the road.
92
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 93 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure – Includes Hydrogen
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Michael Hordeski, (Engineer, Formerly with NASA), HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS:
ADVANCES IN TRANSPORTATION AND POWER, 2009, 127.
One of Ford's partners, Virginia-based Directed Technologies directed Ford to build that cars that
carry hydrogen gas, eliminating the need for costly and bulky reformers. Along with onboard
hydrogen storage, they also hold that the problems of building the hydrogen infrastructure can
be overcome.
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Michael Ball, (Ph.D., Researcher, Institute for Systems and Innovation Research), THE HYDROGEN
ECONOMY: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES, 2009, 40.
In particular, there are various factors that are very critical for the transition towards a
hydrogen economy, in particular the build-up of a hydrogen infrastructure. Under the premise
that cost-efficient hydrogen vehicles are available — which certainly requires a significant
cost reduction of fuel-cell-based drive trains (among other technical challenges, such as
hydrogen storage on board to achieve acceptable driving ranges) — a crucial prerequisite for
the introduction of hydrogen as alternative fuel is the implementation of a supply
infrastructure, that comprises its production (including feedstock preparation), its distribution
and the installation of refuelling stations. The implementation of an operational infrastructure
will require considerable investments over several decades and especially involves a high
investment risk regarding the future increase of hydrogen demand.
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Michael Ball, (Ph.D., Researcher, Institute for Systems and Innovation Research), THE HYDROGEN
ECONOMY: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES, 2009, 385-386.
Developing a hydrogen infrastructure involves selecting user centres, deciding on a mix of
production technologies, siting and sizing production plants, selecting transport options and
locating and sizing refuelling stations. Integrating all this into an existing energy system
constitutes a challenging task for the introduction of hydrogen as an energy carrier.
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Michael Ball, (Ph.D., Researcher, Institute for Systems and Innovation Research), THE HYDROGEN
ECONOMY: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES, 2009, 387.
Significant advances in fuel-cell technology and increasing concern about future energy
supplies have recently made hydrogen a serious alternative, especially with regard to
meeting future fuel demand in the transport sector. Correspondingly, instruments have
begun to be developed in recent years to support planning and decision-making in setting up a
hydrogen infrastructure, its integration into the existing energy system and an estimation of the
energy-economic consequences of a hydrogen economy.
93
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 94 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Michael Hordeski, (Engineer, Formerly with NASA), HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS:
ADVANCES IN TRANSPORTATION AND POWER, 2009, viii.
Building a hydrogen infrastructure in the 21st century may be like building railroads in the 19th
century or the interstate highway system in the 20th century. There will be a point relatively soon
when funding decisions become more important than technology issues.
94
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 95 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure – Includes Hydrogen
Infrastructure includes a hydrogen fueling system
Ming Gao, (Blade Energy Partners), HYDROGEN FUEL: PRODUCTION, TRANSPORT, AND STORAGE,
2009, 372.
A hydrogen infrastructure will require a minimum of two types of storage, which will include a
local distribution (bulk) storage and vehicular storage. There are multiple hydrogen pathway
options, and one possible pathway is a central hydrogen production plant that transports to
local refueling locations. Another option is decentralized hydrogen production to replenish local
distribution centers. Either way there will be requirements for local bulk storage, where the
volumetric and gravimetric requirements will be determined by the transportation and
distribution models that are finally adopted.
Transportation infrastructure includes hydrogen
Marshall Miller, (Researcher, Hydrogen Pathways Program, Institute of Transportation Studies,
U. California at Davis), CLEAN HYDROGEN FOR TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS, Mar.
2006, vi.
Hydrogen fueling stations are the building blocks of a hydrogen transportation infrastructure.
While their primarily function is to provide hydrogen fuel for vehicles, this goal can be achieved
in several different ways. For instance, some stations produce hydrogen on-site while others
have fuel delivered from centralized production plants in liquid or gaseous form. Hydrogen can
also be produced from a variety of feedstocks, such as water and electricity, natural gas, or
bio- mass (e.g., agricultural waste, wood clippings).
95
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 96 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure - Physical Structures
Infrastructure: physical and organizational structures
Pamela A. Collins & Ryan K. Baggett, Department of Homeland Security, 2009, Homeland Security and
Critical Infrastructure Protection, p. 5
The term “infrastructure,” as defined by the Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English, is the basic
physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g., buildings, roads, and power supplies) needed
for the operation of a society or enterprise. Prior to the events of September 11, 2001, the term
“infrastructure” primarily referred to the US public works system, which included systems such as
roadways, bridges, water and sewer systems, airports, seaports, and public buildings. These earlier
references often were put in a context of the concern for their “deteriorating, obsolete, and insufficient
capacity.”
96
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 97 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure - Not Limited to Physical Infrastructure
Physical infrastructure is one category of infrastructure
Rodney Howes & Herbert Robinson, Professors London South Bank University, 2009,
Infrastructure for the Built Environment: Global Procurement Strategies, p. 1
The term “infrastructure” is generic and it can be interpreted broadly as physical, personal and
institutional. This book focuses on physical infrastructure provided in the form of civil engineering and
building projects. Broadly speaking, these works concern economic infrastructure such as
transportation, energy, water, telecommunications and the provision of trade and social infrastructure,
specifically public administration, commercial, industrial, healthcare, education and residential
buildings.
Infrastructure includes physical, institutional and human components
Rodney Howes & Herbert Robinson, Professors London South Bank University, 2009,
Infrastructure for the Built Environment: Global Procurement Strategies, p. 14
The most elaborate attempt at a systematic definition was provided by Jochimsen (1966) who defined
infrastructure as “the sum of all basic material structures, institutional conditions and human
resources available to society, needed for the proper functioning of the economic sector.” Jochimsen
further distinguished between three components of infrastructure that are interrelated—institutional
infrastructure, personal infrastructure and physical infrastructure.
Infrastructure includes institutional, personal and physical
Rodney Howes & Herbert Robinson, Professors London South Bank University, 2009,
Infrastructure for the Built Environment: Global Procurement Strategies, p. 15-8
Institutional infrastructure sometimes referred to as social or institutional capital relates to the
system of informal and formal rules that govern an organization or a country. Personal infrastructure
refers to “human capital” – the stock of tacit and explicit knowledge and skills embodied in the
workforce, nurtured through investments in education, training, and supported by health and other
social services. Physical infrastructure or physical capital comprises all physical elements of buildings,
structures, and networks—transportation, power supply, sewerage and telecommunication systems,
hospital and industrial buildings etc. The understanding of the relationship between these
components is crucial in policy making and the delivery of infrastructure services. For example, in the
context of delivering healthcare services, providing doctors and nurses, financing systems and the
physical infrastructure (hospital buildings) are not sufficient. It is the service derived investment in
water, sanitation, irrigation, basic health and education projects. As development progresses, the
relative share of investment in power, transport, communication, tertiary education, specialist
healthcare, sports, entertainment and leisure increases.
97
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 98 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
There are two basic components to infrastructure development. Provision relates to
the strategic planning, regulating and monitoring of the level of services. The level of
provision and the types of infrastructure projects selected are influenced by various
factors. For example, in education projects the key drivers could be attainment level,
literacy rate, retention and absenteeism, and changing employment patterns. In
healthcare projects, the drivers could be change of technology, hospitalization rates,
level of curative and preventive care, mortality and death rates. These drivers
underpinning policy objectives are the key to infrastructure provision, prioritizing
infrastructure and identifying actual projects. Production involves transforming
infrastructure projects through design and construction, and then maintaining the
completed facilities for service delivery.
98
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 99 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure - Not Limited to “Public” Financing/Ownership
Transportation infrastructure not limited to public financing
Rodney Howes & Herbert Robinson, Professors London South Bank University, 2009,
Infrastructure for the Built Environment: Global Procurement Strategies, p. 14
Development economists often refer to infrastructure as “social overhead capital” described as
investments in networks such as transportation, water and sewerage, power, communication and
irrigation systems. From an economic standpoint, the production of such networked facilities are
capital-intensive, traditionally owned and managed by the public sector; hence they are sometimes
called public infrastructure facilities can now be privately owned and managed. The implication is that
this narrow definition of infrastructure focusing on public infrastructure capital which is often referred
to as “social overhead” is problematic since it only represents part of the infrastructure provision.
There are a variety of definitions for infrastructure from an industrial or national perspective.
Infrastructure is both public and private
Roger Kemp, (City Manager, Berlin, Connecticut), HOW SAFE IS AMERICA’S
INFRASTRUCTURE?, 2009, 22.
In the United States, the infrastructure is divided into private and public sectors; in the latter
case, it is divided again between facilities owned by municipal, county, state, and federal
governments and many special district authorities such as the Port Authority of New York and
the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, to name a few.
99
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 100 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure – Includes Military
Infrastructure includes military
Erin McKean, (Sr. Editor), THE OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2003, 765
Infrastructure: Permanent installations as a basis for military, etc., operations.
Infrastructure includes the military
Ian Brookes, (Sr. Editor), THE CHAMBERS DICTIONARY, 10th ed., 2006, 764-765.
Infrastructure: Inner structure, structure of component parts; a system of communications and
services as backing for military, commercial, etc. operations.
Infrastructure includes the military
Jay M. Shafritz, (Editor), THE HARPERCOLLINS DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
AND POLITICS, 1992, 296.
Infrastructure: The permanent installations and facilities for the support, maintenance, and
control of naval, land, or air forces.
Infrastructure includes the military
Jean McKechnie, (Sr. Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY, UNABRIDGED, 2nd
Ed., 1979, 941.
Infrastructure: A substructure or underlying foundation; especially the basic economic, social,
or military facilities and installations of a community, state, etc.
100
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 101 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure - Includes Air Transportation
Air transportation infrastructure includes
Aleksandra Mozdzanowska & R. John Hansman, Graduate Student & Professor-MIT, 2007, Handbook of
Transportation Policy and Administration, ed. J. F. Plant, p. 12
The air transportation system is comprised of operators and a supporting infrastructure. Operators
use aircraft to transport people and cargo within the system. The supporting infrastructure includes
airport facilities, air traffic control, communication, navigation, and surveillance technologies, as well
as weather tracking and prediction systems.
Air traffic control infrastructure includes communication, navigation and surveillance
Aleksandra Mozdzanowska & R. John Hansman, Graduate Student & Professor-MIT, 2007, Handbook of
Transportation Policy and Administration, ed. J. F. Plant, p. 19
Communications, navigation, and surveillance (CNS) are critical for supporting air traffic control. In
order to maintain separation between aircraft and issue clearances, air-traffic controllers need to be
able to communicate with pilots and see the positions of aircraft they are controlling. Pilots need
navigation equipment to know where they are and follow the instructions to given to them by
controllers. Figure 2.10 shows a schematic on the components of CNS, ATC, and their interactions.
Currently air traffic control is conducted from the ground and all communications go between ground
and air. Most navigation and surveillance infrastructure is ground-based as well. This focus on groundbased technologies is a result of the historical evolution of the air transportation system and is now
slowly changing to include more satellite-based technologies.
101
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 102 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure Includes Freight Transportation
Types of freight transportation infrastructure
Preston L. Schiller, Eric C. Bruun & Jeffrey R. Kenworthy, Professors at Queen’s University, University of
Pennsylvania & Curtin University, 2010, An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning
and Implementation, p. 127
The major forms of US freight transport infrastructure and some of the types within each are as
follows:
--roads: limited access, interstate, urban, rural, paved, unpaved (the US Interstate System is also a
limited-access road system, but distinctly separate):
--rail lines: Class 1 – major freight and passenger, short lines (Class 1 railroads are very large railroads
with networks spanning significant portions of the continent, while short lines operate only locally with
connections to larger railroads; in the US, Amtrak is the only national passenger railroad, operating on
Class 1 railroads, with the exception of the Northeast Corridor);
--inland waterways (major canals and locks, navigable channels);
--seaports (large containerized; special ports for bulk such as coal, minerals, lumber, steel products,
grains, etc.; and special, sometimes offshore, oil and oil products ports);
--airports (commercial, shared military-commercial, private non-commercial);
--pipelines (mostly for oil and gas).
102
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 103 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Demand Measures Are an Alternative to Expanding Infrastructure
Tdm measures are an alternative to expanding infrastructure
Kenneth Button & Henry Vega, School of Public Policy-George Mason University, 2008, The
Implementation and Effectiveness of Transport Demand Management Measures: an international
perspective, eds. S. Ison & T. Rye, p. 31
To reduce urban road traffic congestion, national and local authorities have gradually been turning to
policies with a degree of economical rationale underpinning them, rather than simply trying to build
their way out of problems, or providing ever increasing amounts of subsidies to public transportation
(Gomez-Ibanez and Small, 1994). In particular, there have been moves to use Road Pricing as a tool for
rationing scarce road space to those who gain most from its use.
103
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 104 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Investment***
104
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 105 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Investment – Money
Investment refers to money
Jean McKechnie, (Sr. Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY, UNABRIDGED,
2nd Ed., 1979, 966.
Investment: The laying out of money in the purchase of some kind of property.
Investment presumes expectation of profit
Ian Brookes, (Sr. Editor), THE CHAMBERS DICTIONARY, 10th ed., 2006, 784.
Investment: Any placing of money to secure income or profit.
Investment refers to money used for the purpose of obtaining a profi
Jean McKechnie, (Sr. Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY, UNABRIDGED, 2nd
Ed., 1979, 966. Invest: To put money into business, real estate, stocks, bonds, etc., for the purpose
of obtaining an income or profit.
Investment refers to effort as well as money
Sidney Landau, (Sr. Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd ed., 2008, 460.
Invest: To put money or effort into something to make a profit or achieve a result.
National Infrastructure Bank constitutes investment in transportation infrastructure
Clifford Winston, (Sr. Fellow, Brookings Institution), LAST EXIT: PRIVATIZATION AND
DEREGULATION OF THE U.S. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM, 2010, 164.
Policymakers, however, are currently focused on national fundraising strategies for
infrastructure investments—particularly for highways—that include a National Infrastructure
Bank, grants from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (popularly known as
the stimulus bill), and taxes on vehicle-miles traveled. As noted, $8 billion of stimulus funds has
already been appropriated to expand high-speed rail service without conducting any serious
economic analysis. Such spending would do little to address the vast inefficiencies in the system
and would entail considerable waste.
105
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 106 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increased Investment Does Not Increase Investment
Increasing efficiency does not necessarily increase revenue for investment
Transportation Research Board, 2006, The Fuel Tax and Alternatives for
Transportation Funding, p. 2
The committee did not estimate how much governments should spend on transportation and did not
interpret its task as devising revenue mechanisms to support an increased level of spending. There is no
certainty that finance reform in the direction of improving the efficiency of transportation would
increase revenues. A reformed finance system would remain subject to many of the external political
and economic constraints that limit the revenue potential of the present system. However, reform
would help transportation agencies to manage capacity and too target investment to projects with the
greatest benefit to the public. Each dollar spent would be more effective and services would improve,
and it is conceivable that the public would be willing to pay more for transportation programs that
worked better.
106
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 107 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Federal Freight Fee Does Not Increase Federal Investment
Federal freight fee does not increase federal investment
Patricia A. Dalton, Managing Director-Physical Infrastructure Team, GAO, 2008, House Hearing:
Financing Infrastructure Investments, May 8, p. 70-1
Freight Fees. Given the importance of freight movement to the economy, the Policy Commission
recently recommended a new federal freight fee to support the development of a national program
aimed at strategically expanding capacity for freight transportation. While the volume of domestic
and international freight moving through the country has increased dramatically and is expected to
continue growing, the capacity of the nation’s freight transportation infrastructure has not increased at
the same rate as demand. To support the development of a national program for freight transportation,
the Policy Commission recently recommended the introduction of a federal freight fee. The Policy
Commission notes that a freight fee, such as a per-container charge, could help fund projects that
remedy chokepoints and increase throughput. The Policy Commission also recommended that a portion
of the customs duties, which are assessed on imported goods, be used to fund capacity improvements
for freight transportation. The majority of customs duties currently collected, however, are deposited
in the US Treasury’s general fund for the general support of federal activities. Therefore, designating
a portion of customs duties for surface transportation financing would not create a new source of
revenue, but rather transfer funds from the general fund.
107
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 108 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Transportation Infrastructure***
108
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 109 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Infrastructure – Stuff Included
Transportation infrastructure includes dams and water supply
Rahall Appalachian Transportation Institute of Marshall University, TRANSPORTATION
INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS, 2012. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.njrati.org/programs/transportation-infrastructure-systems/.
Transportation Infrastructure includes bridges, roads, rail, mass transit, dams, energy
production, water supply, levees, and aviation, which serves all modes of transportation.
Transportation infrastructure includes cars/trains, etc.
Scott Huler, (Journalist), ON THE GRID, 2010, 194.
Transportation may not seem like infrastructure—it rides on infrastructure, to be sure, but is it
infrastructure itself? It felt like it to me: Getting stuff and people around is a fundamental part of
human life. But the trains that I hear squealing all night long, the airport that gets me hither and
yon, and the buses that sort of enable me to get around if I have absolutely no other options
seemed like the last systems to investigate. For example, when the local nuclear plant is turned
off, my electricity probably comes from nearby coal plants whose fuel trundles through the
railyard near my house, and my Thanksgiving turkey is probably fed by grain that moves by rail
too. The bus running downtown might not be a big part of my life, but it's a big part for the
people who depend on it. And considering how large a role shoehorning kids, carry-ons, and bags
of overpriced snacks into cruelly undersized aircraft plays in my life, how could the air travel
system not be infrastructure?
List of items in the transportation infrastructure
City of Denver Public Works Department, COMPLETE STREETS, May 17, 2011. Retrieved Mar. 7, 2012
from http://www.completestreets.org/webdocs/policy/cs-co-denver-policy.pdf.
Transportation infrastructure is defined as any facility designed for transporting people and
goods including, but not limited to, sidewalks, trails, bike lanes, highways, streets, bridges,
tunnels, railroads, mass transportation, and parking systems.
List of items in the transportation infrastructure
Ryan Orr, (Dir., Collaboratory for Research on Global Projects), ENABLING USER-FEE BACKED
TRANSPORTATION FINANCE IN CALIFORNIA, Jan. 2008. Retrieved Mar. 7, 2012 from
http://crgp.stanford.edu/publications/working_papers/Orr_Keever_Enabling_User_Fee_Backed
_Transportation_Finance_wp0041.pdf.
Here transportation infrastructure is defined as “any fixed physical asset designed for
transporting people and goods including highways, arterial streets, bridges, tunnels, and mass
transportation systems.
List of items in the transportation infrastructure
Susanne Trimbath, (Prof., Economics, Bellevue U.), TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE:
PAVING THE WAY, 2011, 9.
The process, detailed in the [U.S. Chamber of Commerce] Technical Report last summer (US
Chamber 2010), is basically this: Clearly define “transportation infrastructure” as the underlying
structures that support the delivery of inputs to places of production, goods and services to
109
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 110 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
customers, and customers to marketplaces. The structures are: transit, highways, airports,
railways, waterways (ports), intermodal links.
List of items included in the transportation infrastructure
Office of Management and Budget, WIN THE FUTURE WITH A 21ST CENTURY INFRASTRUCTURE,
2012. Retrieved Mar. 7, 2012 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/factsheet/21st-centuryinfrastructure.
Key elements of the nation’s surface transportation infrastructure — our highways, bridges, and
transit assets — fall short of a state of good repair. This can impact the capacity, performance,
and safety of our transportation system.
110
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 111 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Infrastructure – Stuff Included
Transportation infrastructure includes a limited list of items
Laura Braden, (Staff, Building America’s Future Educational Fund), BUILDING AMERICA’S
FUTURE, 2011. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from http://www.bafuture.org/.
America's transportation infrastructure includes our highways, bridges, tunnels, railways,
airports, transit systems, ports, and freight goods movement.
Transportation infrastructure includes carbon dioxide transport for sequestration
Ah-Hyung Alissa Park, (Prof., Engineering, Columbia U.), HYDROGEN FUEL: PRODUCTION,
TRANSPORT, AND STORAGE, 2009, 588.
Once the CO2 is captured and compressed, it needs to be transported to the sequestration
or utilization locations, unless the capture and sequestration processes are located at
the same site. A CO2 transportation infrastructure could be done with a rather
conventional approach.
Transportation infrastructure includes a system of fuel delivery
Andrew Morriss, (Prof., Business, U. Alabama), THE FALSE PROMISE OF GREEN ENERGY, 2011, 166167.
Beyond the flaws in specific analyses like those discussed above, there are three even more
serious problems with the green energy proponents' vision of our transportation future.
First, it rests on unrealistic assumptions about the ease of changing our transportation
infrastructure. The United States has an extensive infrastructure of pipelines, storage tanks, and
refineries dedicated to providing gasoline and diesel to cars and trucks. This infrastructure
produces large network effects that will be hard to duplicate for any new technology,
making it likely that gasoline and diesel engines will continue to dominate transportation
well into the future. Some vehicles, like centrally dispatched delivery fleets, can adopt a new
fuel technology relatively easily because they return to a central refueling station regularly.
Transportation infrastructure includes bicycles
Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, BACKGROUND, 2007. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2011 from
https://secure2.convio.net/rtt/site/Advocacy?page=UserActionInactive&id=121.
Sen. [Patty] Murray noted that "bike paths and walkways provide an alternative to cars and help make
our communities more healthy and more like neighborhoods." By standing up for bike paths, she
played a role in ensuring continued funding for bike paths and trails in our nation's transportation
infrastructure.
111
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 112 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Infrastructure – Limited Definitions
Transportation infrastructure includes a limited list of items
Economic Development Research Group, FAILURE TO ACT: THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF
CURRENT INVESTMENT TRENDS IN SURFACE TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE, 2011,
3.
The nation’s surface transportation infrastructure includes the critical highways, bridges,
railroads, and transit systems that enable people and goods to access the markets, services, and
inputs of production essential to America’s economic vitality.
Transportation infrastructure term defined
Nathan Musick, (Economist, Congressional Budget Office), PUBLIC SPENDING ON
TRANSPORTATION AND WATER INFRASTRUCTURE, 2010, 2.
For the purposes of CBO's analysis, "transportation infrastructure" includes the systems and
facilities that support the following types of activities: Vehicular transportation: highways,
roads, bridges, and tunnels; Mass transit: subways, buses, and commuter rail; Rail transport:
primarily the intercity passenger service provided by Amtrak; Civil aviation: airport terminals,
runways, and taxiways, and facilities and navigational equipment for air traffic control; and
Water transportation: waterways, ports, vessels, and navigational systems.
112
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 113 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Infrastructure – Stuff Excluded
Transportation infrastructure does not include cars
AmosWeb, A PEDESTRIAN’S GUIDE TO THE ECONOMY, Dec. 6, 2011. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012 from
http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/awb_nav.pl?s=pdg&c=dsp&k=47.
We usually think about transportation in terms of vehicles -- like cars, trucks, trains, airplanes, and
boats. Vehicles, however, are only part of any transportation system. You usually need depots,
roadbeds, and other such capital goods that we refer to as infrastructure. Cars need streets and
highways, trains need tracks, airplanes need airports, and boats need docks and ports.
Transportation infrastructure is distinguished from communication and utility
infrastructures
International Economic Development Council, INFRASTRUCTURE, 2011. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2012
from http://www.iedconline.org/?p=Guide_Infrastructure.
Transportation infrastructure includes: Roads; Light transit rail networks, inter city, state
passenger railways; Airports; Waterways and ports; Bus services. Communication infrastructure
includes: Copper wire for telecommunications, installed by telecommunications companies;
High bandwidth and fiber optic cable capable of carrying voice, data and video streams;
Satellite communications and microwave antenna; Mobile phone networks; Local area
networks (LAN). Utility infrastructure includes: Electric power; Water and sewage treatment;
Natural gas lines.
Transportation infrastructure is distinguished from energy infrastructures
Chapman and Cutler, LLP, (Attorneys at Law), THE AMERICAN JOBS ACT AND ITS IMPACT ON
A NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE BANK, 2011. Retrieved Mar. 8, 2011 from
http://www.chapman.com/media/news/media.1081.pdf.
Transportation Infrastructure includes the construction, alteration, or repair, including the
facilitation of intermodal transit, of the following subsectors: Highways or roads; Bridges; Mass
transit; Inland waterways; Commercial ports; Airports; Air traffic control systems; Passenger
rail, including high-speed rail; Freight rail systems. Water Infrastructure: includes the
construction, consolidation, alteration, or repair of the following subsectors: Wastewater
treatment facilities; Storm water management systems; Dams; Solid waste disposal
facilities; Drinking water treatment facilities; Levees; Open space management systems.
Energy Infrastructure: includes the construction, consolidation, alteration, or repair of the
following subsectors: Pollution reduced energy generation; Transmission and distribution;
Storage; Energy efficiency enhancements for public and commercial buildings.
113
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 114 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Transportation Infrastructure – Excludes Electrical Grid
Transportation infrastructure does NOT include the electrical grid
Alex Tabarrok, (Prof., Economics, George Mason University), INFRASTRUCTURE: ROADS AND THE SMART
GRID, Dec. 9, 2008. Retrieved Mar. 7, 2012 from
http://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2008/12/infrastructure.html.
Even more valuable than transportation infrastructure would be greater investment in electricity
infrastructure, a smart grid. Consider that in 2003 a massive, widespread, power outage threw 50
million people in the Northeastern states and Ontario, Canada out of power – disrupting lives and the
economy.
114
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 115 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***Infrastructure Investment***
115
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 116 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure Investment Types
Types of federal infrastructure investment support
Peter Orszag, Director-Congressional Budget Office, 2008, House Hearing: Financing Infrastructure
Investments, May 8, p. 26
If the Congress were to decide that there is justification for building additional infrastructure, it could
choose to increase federal spending (although such increases might not translate dollar for dollar into
increased total spending if state governments or other funds decided in response to redirect some of
their own spending away from infrastructure.) Increases in federal support for infrastructure could
come from any combination of increased receipts, reduced spending elsewhere, and higher deficits.
However, most such findings currently comes either from dedicated receipts or through tax
expenditures.
Multiple options for federal infrastructure investment
Patricia A. Dalton, Managing Director-Physical Infrastructure Team, GAO, 2008, House Hearing:
Financing Infrastructure Investments, May 8, p. 53
Various options are available to fund infrastructure investments. These options include altering
existing or introducing new funding approaches, employing various financing mechanisms, such as
bonds and loans. For example, a variety of taxes and user fees, such as tolling, can be used to fund
infrastructure projects. In addition, some have suggested including an infrastructure component in a
future economic stimulus bill, which could provide a one-time infusion of funds for infrastructure
projects. Each of these options has different merits and challenges, and choosing among them is likely
to involve trade-offs among different policy goals. Furthermore, the suitability of the various options
depends on the level of federal involvement or control that policymakers desire. However, as GAO has
reported, when infrastructure investment decisions are made based on evaluation of these options can
lead to an appropriate blend of public and private funds match public and private costs and benefits. To
help policymakers make explicit decisions about how much overall federal spending should be devoted
to investment, GAO has previously proposed establishing an investment component within the unified
budget.
Tax credits are energy infrastructure investment
Donna Cooper, Senior Fellow with the Economic Policy Team at the Center for American Progress. Her
portfolio of policy work includes federal infrastructure policy. Before coming to CAP in 2010, she served
for eight years as the secretary of policy and planning for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, February
2012, Meeting the Infrastructure Imperative: An Affordable Plan for Putting Americans Back to Work,
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2012/02/pdf/infrastructure.pdf
The tax code also includes tax credits aimed at boosting energy infrastructure
investment—$16 billion worth in 2010 alone. The most robust of the tax credits aimed at electricity
generation are the energy production tax credit, which in 2010 cost the Treasury $1.5 billion in foregone
revenue, and the investment tax credit, which cost $130 million.61
116
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 117 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure Investment -Loans, Grants, Subsidies
Loans, grants, federal subsidies, and the estimated loss of tax revenues from tax
credits constitute federal investment in infrastructure
Donna Cooper, Senior Fellow with the Economic Policy Team at the Center for American Progress. Her
portfolio of policy work includes federal infrastructure policy. Before coming to CAP in 2010, she served
for eight years as the secretary of policy and planning for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, February
2012, Meeting the Infrastructure Imperative: An Affordable Plan for Putting Americans Back to Work,
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2012/02/pdf/infrastructure.pdf
The federal investment in infrastructure is the sum total of appropriations of
grants, the federal credit subsidies of loans, and estimated lost revenues from tax
expenditures intended to stimulate infrastructure investment. Across all federal
programs and vehicles, the government invested just more than $92 billion in
infrastructure improvements in 2010.
Loans and loan guarantees are federal investment
Donna Cooper, Senior Fellow with the Economic Policy Team at the Center for American Progress. Her
portfolio of policy work includes federal infrastructure policy. Before coming to CAP in 2010, she served
for eight years as the secretary of policy and planning for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, February
2012, Meeting the Infrastructure Imperative: An Affordable Plan for Putting Americans Back to Work,
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2012/02/pdf/infrastructure.pdf
The federal government has been making loans and loan guarantees for transportation
infrastructure projects for nearly a decade with negligible defaults. The exception that proves the rule:
One of the earliest TIFIA loans made in 2003 was a $172 million loan to a private company to finance the
expansion and tolling of a nine-mile stretch of the South Bay Expressway in California. The loan went
into default in 2010. While the company was able to cover operating expenses, toll revenues could not
generate enough funds to pay back investors. The federal government was identified as a primary
creditor, as were the large bank investors who backed the project. The bankruptcy court’s restructuring
of the debt reduced the TIFIA loan repayment to $99 million in debt and $6 million in equity ownership
of the company. The upshot: Debt and equity payments to repay this one failed investment are reliable
under the restructured financial structure.
117
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 118 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Infrastructure Investment- Federal Spending
Federal spending and loans are investment
Donna Cooper, Senior Fellow with the Economic Policy Team at the Center for American Progress. Her
portfolio of policy work includes federal infrastructure policy. Before coming to CAP in 2010, she served
for eight years as the secretary of policy and planning for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, February
2012, Meeting the Infrastructure Imperative: An Affordable Plan for Putting Americans Back to Work,
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2012/02/pdf/infrastructure.pdf
Our plan recommends that current federal requirements for state matching funds prescribed by the
federal transportation and water infrastructure programs accompany new federal investments.9 If this is
the case, then the federal government will need to increase its direct spending on infrastructure by
$48 billion a year, which will trigger $11 billion in new state matching investments. On top of direct
federal expenditures, this plan proposes approximately $10 billion in new federal loan authority
annually. (The cost of the credit subsidies to support these loans is included in the proposed $48 billion
increase in federal investment.) This increase is federal investment represents a 52 percent increase
over the approximately $92 billion in FY 2010 federal appropriations for capital infrastructure
investments distributed as grants, credit subsidies, and tax expenditures for infrastructure.
Federal funding is investment in infrastructure
Donna Cooper, Senior Fellow with the Economic Policy Team at the Center for American Progress. Her
portfolio of policy work includes federal infrastructure policy. Before coming to CAP in 2010, she served
for eight years as the secretary of policy and planning for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, February
2012, Meeting the Infrastructure Imperative: An Affordable Plan for Putting Americans Back to Work,
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2012/02/pdf/infrastructure.pdf
The current on-again, off-again spigot of infrastructure funding undermines efficiency and contributes to
the erosion of our assets. Congress must enact a multiyear set of funding bills for all elements of our
infrastructure with reliable and ongoing sources of money for investment to remedy this serious
defect in our national infrastructure spending programs. To successfully bring our infrastructure up to
par with levels of investment, we propose more than just increasing the level of annual funding
available for investment.
Direct grants are infrastructure investment
Donna Cooper, Senior Fellow with the Economic Policy Team at the Center for American Progress. Her
portfolio of policy work includes federal infrastructure policy. Before coming to CAP in 2010, she served
for eight years as the secretary of policy and planning for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, February
2012, Meeting the Infrastructure Imperative: An Affordable Plan for Putting Americans Back to Work,
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2012/02/pdf/infrastructure.pdf
Most federal infrastructure investments are made as direct grants. In sum, CAP’s analysis finds that
approximately $82 billion in federal infrastructure grants flow to states according to a variety of
formulas that vary in efficacy. (see Chart 1 on page 20) Congress wisely ended the practice of loading up
federal transportation authorization bills with earmarks in 2010. As a result, most of the federal
infrastructure funds are allocated to states based on formulas or are distributed as competitive grants.
In some cases, grant formulas do a good job of directing funds to where they are most needed. But most
are either outdated or inappropriate for ensuring wise expenditures of federal funds.
118
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 119 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Increased Efficiency Doesn’t Increase Investment
Increasing efficiency does not necessarily increase revenue for investment
Transportation Research Board, 2006, The Fuel Tax and Alternatives for
Transportation Funding, p. 2
The committee did not estimate how much governments should spend on transportation and did not
interpret its task as devising revenue mechanisms to support an increased level of spending. There is no
certainty that finance reform in the direction of improving the efficiency of transportation would
increase revenues. A reformed finance system would remain subject to many of the external political
and economic constraints that limit the revenue potential of the present system. However, reform
would help transportation agencies to manage capacity and too target investment to projects with the
greatest benefit to the public. Each dollar spent would be more effective and services would improve,
and it is conceivable that the public would be willing to pay more for transportation programs that
worked better.
119
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 120 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***In***
In means within the limits of
Merriam Webster Online Dictionary, 2006, p. http://www.m-w.com/cgibin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=in (PDNS3565)
Main Entry: 1in Pronunciation: 'in, &n, &n Function: preposition Etymology: Middle English, from
Old English; akin to Old High German in in, Latin in, Greek en 1 a -- used as a function word to
indicate inclusion, location, or position within limits <in the lake> <wounded in the leg> <in the
summer>
In -- means throughout
Words and Phrases, 1959, p. 546 (PDNS3566)
In the Act of 1861 providing that justices of the peace shall have jurisdiction “in” their respective
counties to hear and determine all complaints, the word “in” should be construed to mean
“throughout” such counties. Reynolds v. Larkin, 14, p. 114, 117, 10 Colo. 126.
120
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 121 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
***PPPs Good***
121
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 122 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Its: PPPs are Owned by the Government
Government still owns the infrastructure in a ppp
R. Richard Geddes, Associate Professor, Policy Analysis & Management-Cornell University, 2011, The
Road to Renewal: Private Investment in U.S. Transportation Infrastructure, p. 26-7
Public-private partnerships range from concessions of highway rest stops to arrangements in which
private partners help to design, finance, build, operate, own, and/or manage major transportation
facilities. Definitions of PPPs are invariably broad. According to the Government Accountability Office,
highway PPPs refer to “highway-related projects in which the public sector enters into a contract,
lease, or concession agreement with a private sector firm or firms, and where the private sector
provides transportation services such as designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining the
facility, usually for an extended period of time.” Similarly, the US Federal Highway Administration
website on PPPs states that “Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are contractual agreements formed
between a public agency and private sector entity that allow for greater private sector participation in
the delivery and financing of transportation projects.” Because that is where some of the largest
benefits lie, the focus of this book is on PPPs that facilitate increased private financing of transportation
projects, and where private investors assume some risks inherent in the construction and operation of
transportation projects.
Terminology pertaining to transportation PPPs, particularly brownfields, has created unnecessary
confusion. A variety of terms have been used to describe those PPP contracts with varying degrees of
accuracy, including toll concessions, leases, franchises, asset sales, and privatizations. “Asset sale”
and “privatization” do not accurately describe US PPPs, since those terms imply a change in facility
title and a possible loss of control by the public partner. No ownership change has taken place with
respect to any US transportation PPP to date; facilities instead always remain publicly owned. A toll
concession, for example, is simply a long-term lease. If a landlord owns a structure with an apartment
upstairs and a storefront downstairs and leases out her storefront, this does not “privatize” or “sell”
the structure. It remains owned by the landlord.
Government retains ownership under ppp contracts
R. Richard Geddes, Associate Professor, Policy Analysis & Management-Cornell University, 2011, The
Road to Renewal: Private Investment in U.S. Transportation Infrastructure, p. 29
With the design-build-operate-maintain (DBOM) approach, parties can benefit from an integration of processes
beyond that offered by the DB contract. Under a DBOM arrangement, the private partner is
responsible for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of a facility for a specific time
period. Operation and maintenance functions are therefore added to the responsibilities a private
partner carries in a DB contract. Payment after project completion is conditional on meeting certain
performance standards, such as physical condition, traffic congestion, ride quality, and capacity. A
DBOM contract allows the private partner to utilize its detailed knowledge of a particular facility’s design
and construction to develop a maintenance and operating plan specific to that facility. By assigning
responsibility to the private partner for project quality and performance throughout its entire
lifecycle, this approach also gives the contract team an incentive to provide the best possible plan and
project. If, for example, heavy vehicles are going to use a highway, then a private firm that maintains as
well as builds the facility has an incentive to use more durable pavement. The government typically
retains ownership and is responsible for financing the project under a DBOM contract.
122
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 123 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
Dbfo contract ppp still retains government operational responsibility
R. Richard Geddes, Associate Professor, Policy Analysis & Management-Cornell University, 2011, The
Road to Renewal: Private Investment in U.S. Transportation Infrastructure, p. 30
A design-build-finance-operate (DBFO) contract is an extension of the DBOM approach in that the private partner
assumes at least some added responsibility for financing the project and for the risks associated with
that financing the project– that is, the private partner becomes responsible for the design, construction,
financing, operation, maintenance, improvement, and expansion of a new facility. The partner is
granted the right to actual toll revenue (or shadow toll payments; see below) for a specified time
period in exchange for fulfilling those responsibilities. Although DBFO contracts vary according to the
degree of private financing involved, part of the financing is usually accomplished through debt that
leverages streams of toll revenue. A DBFO contract may be awarded for the upgrading or expansion of
an existing facility if the necessary renovations are significant. In many cases, operational responsibility
reverts to the government after a period of time. This appears to be a popular approach
internationally.
123
16-Mar-16
Lakeland District Debate
Lakeland Shah-Paradkar
{File Name}
Page 124 of 124
Infrastructure Topic
No Guarantee of Increased Investment
Ppps DON’T NECESSARILY INCREASE INVESTMENT RESOURCES
Transportation Research Board, 2006, The Fuel Tax and Alternatives for
Transportation Funding, p. 132-3
The perspective of GAO’s assessment, that private participation should be judged in terms of its ability
to increase total funding for transportation, seems to parallel the perspective of the states (for example,
in California’s AB 680 program described above). However, it is not evident that the choice between
private and public ownership and operation of toll roads should be viewed primarily as a funding
issue. Increasing private sector participation will not necessarily increase the total funds available for
roads or allow accelerated road investment if the toll revenues that would attract private-sector
partners and backers are available to the government acting alone. Instead, the choice to involve the
private sector should be viewed as similar to other privatization decisions that governments have faced
in regard to a variety of services and administrative functions with similar potential benefits and
drawbacks. For example, the private sector may have costs different from those of the government, and
political pressures and public expectations may affect the relative flexibility of public and private toll
road operators to set prices for road use.
124
16-Mar-16