Chapter 12
Lecture Outline
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Chapter 12
Blood
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12.1 Introduction
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A. Blood, a type of connective tissue, is a complex
mixture of cells, chemicals, and fluid.
B. Blood transports substances throughout the body,
helps to maintain a stable interstitial fluid
environment, and distribute heat.
C. The blood includes red blood cells, white blood
cells, platelets, and plasma.
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D. Blood Volume and Composition
1. Plasma is a mixture of water, amino acids,
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins,
hormones, electrolytes, and cellular wastes.
2. A blood hematocrit (HCT) is normally 45% cells
(mainly red blood cells) and 55% plasma.
3. An average-sized adult has a blood volume of
about 5.3 quarts (5 liters).
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Fig 12.1
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Fig 12.2
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12.2 Blood Cells
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A. Red Blood Cells
1. Description
a. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are biconcave
disks that contain one-third oxygen-carrying
hemoglobin by volume.
b. When oxygen combines with hemoglobin,
bright red oxyhemoglobin results.
c. Deoxygenated blood (deoxyhemoglobin) is
darker.
d. Red blood cells discard their nuclei during
development and so cannot reproduce or
produce proteins.
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Red Blood Cells, Description, cont.
e. Red blood cells produce ATP through
glycolysis alone and can not use the oxygen
they carry since they have no mitochondria.
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Fig 12.3
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2. Red blood cells counts
a. The typical red blood cell count is 4,700,000
- 6,100,000 cells per mm3 for males and
4,200,000 - 5,400,000 cells per mm3 for
females.
b. The number of red blood cells is a measure
of the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity.
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3. Red blood cell production and its control
a. In the embryo and fetus, red blood cell
production (erythropoiesis) occurs in the
yolk sac, liver, and spleen; after birth, it
occurs in the red bone marrow.
b. The average life span of a red blood cell is
120 days.
c. The stages of red blood cell formation from
hematopoietic stem cells (hemocytoblasts)
is displayed in Figure 12.4 on the next slide.
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Fig 12.4a
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Red blood cell production and its control, cont.
d. The total number of red blood cells remains
relatively constant due to a negative
feedback mechanism utilizing the hormone
erythropoietin, which is released from the
kidneys and liver in response to the
detection of low oxygen levels.
e. Excessive increase in red blood cells is
called polycythemia which causes viscous,
slow moving blood.
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Fig 12.5
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4. Dietary factors affecting red blood cell
production
a. Vitamins B12 and folic acid are needed for
DNA synthesis, so they are necessary for
the reproduction of all body cells, especially
in hematopoietic tissue.
b. Iron is needed for hemoglobin synthesis;
most of the iron comes from recycling old
red blood cells.
c. A deficiency in red blood cells or quantity of
hemoglobin results in anemia.
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5. Destruction of red blood cells
a. With age, red blood cells become
increasingly fragile and are damaged by
passing through narrow capillaries.
b. Macrophages in the liver and spleen
phagocytize damaged red blood cells.
c. Hemoglobin from the decomposed red blood
cells is converted into heme and globin.
d. Heme is decomposed into iron which is
stored or converted into biliverdin and then
bilirubin which are excreted in bile.
e. The globin is broken down into amino acids
and reused.
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Fig 12.6
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B. White blood cells
1. Description
a. White blood cells (leukocytes) help defend
the body against disease.
b. They are formed from hemocytoblasts
(hematopoietic stem cells) in red bone
marrow.
c. Hormones that stimulate WBC production
fall into two categories, interleukins and
colony-stimulating factors (CSF’s).
d. White blood cells can leave the bloodstream
to fight infection.
e. Life span is about 12 hours.
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2. Five types of white blood cells are in circulating
blood and are distinguished by size, granular
appearance of the cytoplasm, shape of the
nucleus, and staining characteristics.
a. The types of white blood cells are the
granulocytes, (neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils), and the agranulocytes
(monocytes and lymphocytes).
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b.
Neutrophils have purple-stained fine
cytoplasmic granules and a multi-lobed nucleus;
they comprise 54-62% of leukocytes.
Fig 12.7
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c.
Eosinophils have coarse granules that stain
deep red, a bilobed nucleus, and make up only
1-3% of circulating leukocytes.
Fig 12.8
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d.
Basophils have fewer granules that stain blue;
they account for fewer than 1% of leukocytes.
Fig 12.9
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e.
Monocytes are the largest blood cells, have
variably-shaped nuclei, and make up 3-9% of
circulating leukocytes.
Fig 12.10
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f.
Lymphocytes are long-lived, have a large,
round nucleus, and account for 25-33% of
circulating leukocytes.
Fig 12.11
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3. Functions of white blood cells
a. Leukocytes can squeeze between cells
lining walls of blood vessels by diapedesis
and attack bacteria and debris.
b. Neutrophils and monocytes are phagocytic,
with monocytes (become macrophages)
engulfing the larger particles. Both of these
contain many lysosomes that help
breakdown organic molecules.
c. Eosinophils moderate inflammation and
allergic reactions, as well as defend against
parasitic infections.
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Fig 12.12
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Functions of white blood cells, cont.
d. Basophils migrate to damaged tissues and
release histamine to promote inflammation
and heparin to inhibit blood clotting.
e. Lymphocytes are the major players in
specific immune reactions; B cells produce
antibodies.
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4. White blood cell counts
a. Normally a cubic millimeter of blood contains
3,500 to 10,500 white blood cells.
b. Leukocytosis occurs after an infection when
excess numbers of leukocytes are present.
c. Leukopenia, too few white blood cells,
occurs from a variety of conditions, including
AIDS.
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White blood cell counts, cont.
d. A differential white blood cell count (DIFF)
can help pinpoint the nature of an illness,
indicating whether it is caused by bacteria or
viruses. A differential white blood cell count
lists the percentages of the types of
leukocytes in a blood sample.
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C. Blood platelets
1. Blood platelets or thrombocytes are fragments
of megakaryocytes, developed from
hematopoietic stem cells in response to
thrombopoietin.
2. Platelets help repair damaged blood vessels by
adhering to their broken edges.
3. Normal platelet counts vary from 150,000 to
350,000 platelets per mm3.
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Table 12.1
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12.3 Blood Plasma
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A. Plasma is the clear, straw-colored fluid portion of
the blood.
1. Plasma is mostly water (92%) but contains a
variety of substances.
2. Plasma functions to transport nutrients and
gases, regulate fluid and electrolyte balance,
and maintain a favorable pH.
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B. Plasma Proteins
1. The plasma proteins are the most abundant
dissolved substances in the plasma.
2. Plasma proteins are not used for energy and
fall into three groups-albumins, globulins, and
fibrinogen.
a. The albumins help maintain the colloid
osmotic pressure of the blood and account
for 60% of the plasma proteins.
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Plasma Proteins, cont.
b. The globulins, comprising 36% of the
plasma proteins, are designated as alpha,
beta, and gamma globulins.
1) Alpha and beta globulins function in
transporting lipids and fat-soluble
vitamins.
2) Gamma globulins are a type of antibody.
c. Fibrinogen (4%) plays a primary role in
blood coagulation.
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Table 12.2
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C. Gases and Nutrients
1. The most important blood gases are oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
2. The plasma nutrients include amino acids,
monosaccharides, nucleotides, and lipids from
the digestive tract.
3. Since lipids are not soluble in the water of the
plasma, they are surrounded by protein
molecules for transport through the
bloodstream as lipoproteins.
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D. Nonprotein Nitrogenous Substances
1. Nonprotein nitrogenous substances generally
include amino acids, urea, and uric acid,
creatine and creatinine.
2. Urea and uric acid are the by-products of
protein and nucleic acid catabolism.
3. Amino acids come from the breakdown of
proteins.
4. Creatinine comes from creatine (creatine
phosphate in muscles)
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E. Plasma Electrolytes
1. Plasma electrolytes are absorbed by the
intestine or are by-products of cellular
metabolism.
2. They include sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate,
and sulfate ions.
3. Some of these ions are important in
maintaining osmotic pressure and pH of the
plasma.
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Fig 12.2
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12.4 Hemostasis
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A. Hemostasis refers to the stoppage of bleeding.
1. Following injury to a vessel, three steps occur
in hemostasis: blood vessel spasm, platelet
plug formation, and blood coagulation.
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B. Blood Vessel Spasm
1. Cutting a blood vessel causes the muscle in its
walls to contract in a reflex, or engage in
vasospasm.
2. This reflex lasts only a few minutes, but it lasts
long enough (30 minutes) to initiate the second
and third steps of hemostasis.
3. Platelets release serotonin at this time
constricting smooth muscles in the blood
vessel walls.
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C. Platelet Plug Formation
1. Platelets stick to the exposed edges of
damaged blood vessels, forming a net with
spiny processes protruding from their
membranes.
2. A platelet plug is most effective on a small
vessel.
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Fig 12.13
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D. Blood Coagulation
1. Blood coagulation is the most effective means
of hemostasis.
2. Blood coagulation is very complex and uses
many clotting factors as well as calcium.
3. Damaged tissues release a chemical called
tissue thromboplastin, which activates the first
in a series of factors leading to the production
of prothrombin activator.
4. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin in
the plasma into thrombin. This in turn,
catalyzes a reaction that converts fibrinogen
into fibrin.
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Fig 12.14
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Blood Coagulation, cont.
5. The major event in blood clot formation is the
conversion of soluble fibrinogen into net like
insoluble fibrin causing the blood cells to catch.
6. Serum is plasma minus the clotting factors.
7. The amount of prothrombin activator formed is
proportional to the amount of tissue damage.
8. Once a blood clot forms, it promotes still more
clotting through a positive feedback system.
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Blood Coagulation, cont.
9. After a clot forms, plasminogen is converted to
plasmin that digests the fibrin.
10. Fibroblasts then enter the area and begin
repair by forming fibrous connective tissue to
seal the break.
11. A clot that forms abnormally in a vessel is a
thrombus; if it dislodges, it is an embolus.
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Fig 12.16
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12.5 Blood Groups and Transfusions
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A. After mixed success with transfusions, scientists
determined that blood was of different types and
only certain combinations were compatible.
1. Before a transfusion is given, the blood must
be typed and cross-matched.
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B. Antigens and antibodies
1. Clumping of red blood cells following
transfusion is called agglutination.
2. Agglutination is due to the interaction of
proteins on the surfaces of red blood cells
(antigens) with certain antibodies carried in the
plasma.
3. Only a few of the antigens on red blood cells
produce transfusion reactions; these include
the ABO group and Rh group.
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C. ABO Blood Group
1. Type A blood has A antigens on red blood cells
and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
2. Type B blood has B antigens on red blood cells
and anti-A antibodies in the plasma.
3. Type AB blood has both A and B antigens, but
no antibodies in the plasma; universal recipient.
4. Type O blood has neither antigen, but both
types of antibodies in the plasma; universal
donor.
56
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Fig 12.17
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ABO Blood Group, cont.
5. Adverse transfusion reactions (agglutination of
red blood cells) are avoided by preventing the
mixing of blood that contains matching antigens
and antibodies.
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Table 12.3
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Fig 12.18a&b
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Fig 12.18c&d
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D. Rh Blood Group
1. The Rh blood group was named after the
rhesus monkey.
2. If the Rh factor surface protein is present on
red blood cells, the blood is Rh positive; if it is
absent, the blood is Rh negative.
3. There are no corresponding antibodies in the
plasma unless a person with Rh-negative blood
has physical contact with Rh-positive blood; the
person will then develop antibodies for the Rh
factor.
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Rh Blood Group, cont.
4. There are two ways in which an Rh-negative
individual can have contact with Rh-positive
blood – a transfusion or pregnancy.
5. If an Rh-negative woman carries an Rh-positive
baby, she may be exposed to the positive
blood during delivery.
a. The mother will now make antibodies
against Rh that could attack the blood of a
second Rh-positive baby – called
erythroblastosis fetalis.
b. The problem can be prevented by giving the
mother the drug, RhoGAM.
63
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Fig 12.19
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The End
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