近地面微氣象學
(Micrometeorology near the Ground)
授課老師: 游政谷
Micrometeorology(3-8)
The surface energy budget
Principle of the conservation of energy at the surface can be expressed as
RN = H + HL + HG
RN is the net radiation
H and HL are the sensible and latent heat fluxes to or from the air
HG is the ground heat flux to or from the submedium
(sign convention: the radiative flux directed toward the surface is positive,
while other energy fluxes directed away from the surface are positive and
vice versa)
During the daytime, the surface receives radiative energy (RN > 0), which is
partitioned into sensible and latent heat fluxes to the atmosphere and the heat
flux to the submedium. Typically, H, HL, and HG are all positive over land
surfaces during the day.
Fig. 2.6
At night, the surface loses energy by outgoing radiation, which is compensated
by gains of heat from air and soil media and from the latent heat of condensation
released during the process of dew formation.
Fig. 2.7
The magnitudes of the nighttime fluxes are generally much smaller than the
magnitudes of the daytime fluxes, except for HG . The magnitudes of HG do not
differ widely between day and night, although the direction or sign obviously
reverses during the morning and evening transition periods.
Fig. 2.8
For extensive water surfaces (large lakes, seas, and oceans), the combined
value of HL and HG balances most of the net radiation (RN), while H plays only a
minor role (H << HL, or B <<1).
------ water surface temperature does not respond readily to solar heating due to
the large heat capacity and depth of the subsurface mixed layer of a large
lake or ocean
Fig. 2.8 Observed diurnal energy budget over a dry bare surface
(Vehrencamp 1953)
Note that HL = 0
The specific heat (c) of a material is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or
released in raising or lowering the temperature of a unit mass of the material by one
degree. The product of mass density and specific heat is called the heat capacity (C).
Table 2.1 Molecular thermal properties of natural materials
Energy budget of a layer
----The earth’s surface has horizontal inhomogeneities
----The earth’s surface may be partially transparent to radiation (e.g., water)
In many practical situations, it will be more appropriate to consider the energy
budget of a finite interfacial layer instead of an ‘ideal’ surface.
This layer must have finite mass and heat capacity which would allow the
energy to be stored in or released from the layer over a given time interval.
The conservation of energy for the layer:
RN = H + HL + HG + ΔHs
where ΔHs is the changes in the energy storage per unit time, per unit
horizontal area, over the whole depth of the layer
Fig. 2.9 and Fig. 2.10
The rate of heat storage in the oceanic mixed layer plays an important role in
the energy budget. This layer acts as a heat sink (ΔHs > 0) by day and a heat
source (ΔHs < 0) at night.
Example problem:
Over the tropical oceans the Bowen ratio is typically 0.1. Estimate the sensible
and latent heat fluxes, as well as the rate of evaporation from the ocean surface.
Assume the net radiation received just above the surface is 400 W/m2, the heat
flux to water below 50 m is negligible, the rate of warming of the 50-m-deep
oceanic mixed layer is 0.05 oC/day, and the ocean surface temperature is 30 oC.
Ans. H = 25.4 W/m2, HL = 253.7 W/m2,
and the rate of evaporation = 1.03 x 10-4 kg/m2s
Chap. 3 Soil Temperatures and Heat Transfer
Surface temperature (Ts): refers to the temperature at the air-soil interface
Near-surface air temperature: refers to the temperature measured at standard
meteorological stations at the height of 1-2 meter.
The direct in situ measurement of surface temperature is made very difficult
----- extremely large temperature gradient near the surface in both the air and
the soil media
----- the finite dimensions of the temperature sensor
The surface temperature is often determined by extrapolation of measured
temperature profiles in soil and air.
Subsurface soil temperatures are easier to measure than the surface
temperature; the amplitude of diurnal variation of soil temperatures decreases
exponentially with depth and becomes insignificant at a depth of the order of 1 m
or less.
Fig. 3.1 Observed diurnal course of subsurface soil temperatures at various
depths in a sandy loam soil with bare surface (West 1952)
In addition to the “diurnal waves” present in soil temperature in the top layer,
daily or weekly averaged temperatures show a nearly sinusoidal “annual wave”
which penetrates to much greater depths(~10 m) in the soil.
Fig. 3.2 Annual temperature waves in the weekly averaged subsurface
soil temperatures at two depths in a sandy loam soil (West 1952)
Thermal properties of soils
Through solid media, heat is transferred primarily through conduction, which
involves molecular exchanges.
The rate of heat transfer or heat flux in a given direction is found to be
proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction, i.e., the heat flux in the
z-direction
H = -k(әT/әz)
(Fig. 3.3)
in which k is known as the thermal conductivity of the medium
The ratio of thermal conductivity to heat capacity is called the thermal diffusivity
αh. The Equation above can also be written as
H/ ρ c = - αh(әT/әz)
where αh = k/ ρ c = k/C
Table 2.1 Molecular thermal properties of natural materials
Note that air has the lowest heat capacity and the lowest thermal conductivity
of all the natural materials, while water has the highest heat capacity
Addition of water to an initially dry soil increases its heat capacity and
conductivity markedly, because it replaces air (a poor heat conductor) in the
pore space.
Fig. 3.4 Schematic of heat transfer in a vertical column of soil
below a flat, horizontal surface
Chap. 4 Air Temperature and Humidity in the PBL
Factors influencing air temperature in the PBL:
• Type of air mass and its temperature just above the PBL, which depend on the synoptic
situation and the large-scale circulation pattern (Fig. 4.1)
• Thermal characteristics of the surface and submedium, which influence the diurnal
range of surface temperatures
• Net radiation at the surface and its variation with height, which determine the radiative
warming or cooling of the surface and the PBL
• Sensible heat flux at the surface and its variation with height, which determine the rate
of warming or cooling of the air due to convergence or divergence of sensible heat flux
әT/әt = -(әH/әz)/ρcp
• Latent heat exchanges during evaporation and condensation processes at the surface
and in air, which influence the surface and air temperatures, respectively.
• Mean vertical motions forced by topography often lead to rapid changes in temperature
and humidity of air, as well as to local cloud formation and precipitation, as moist air rises
over the mountain slopes (Fig. 4.2)
• Warm or cold air advection as a function of height in the PBL
Fig. 4.1 東亞地面天氣圖 (00 UTC 17 Nov. 2003)
Fig. 4.2 Three types of moist
convection initiation mechanism by
topography (Banta et al. 1990)
Fig. 4.3 Plume visualization of side view of plume dispersion
Neutral Condition
Stable Condition
Fig. 4.4 Schematic of the various stability categories on the basis
of virtual temperature gradient
Fig. 4.5 Nonlocal stability characterization for the various hypothetical
virtual potential temperature profiles (Stull 1988)
Fig. 4.6 位溫垂直分佈之日夜變化
Fig. 4.7 比溼垂直分佈之日變化
Fig. 4.8 近地面層空氣溫度在晴天與陰天時之日夜變化
Fig. 4.9 不同高度水汽壓之日夜變化
Chap. 5 Wind Distribution in the PBL
Some factors influencing wind distribution:
1. Large-scale horizontal pressure and temperature gradients in the lower
atmosphere, which drive the PBL flow.
2. The surface roughness characteristics, which determine the surface drag
and momentum exchange in the lower part of the PBL.
3. The diurnal cycle of heating and cooling of the surface, which determines
the thermal stratification of the PBL.
4. The PBL depth, which determines wind shears in the PBL.
5. Presence of clouds and precipitation in the PBL, which influence its thermal
stratification.
6. Surface topographical features, which give rise to local and mesoscale
circulations
Fig. 5.1 地轉風與等壓線之關係示意圖
Fig. 5.2 熱力風與等溫線之關係示意圖
Fig. 5.3 不同等壓線走向下, 地面與邊界層頂地轉風與等溫線的關係示意圖
Fig. 5.4 在一正壓PBL中, 不同高度之力平衡狀況
(a) 地面 (b) 地面層 (c) PBL中間高度 (d) PBL頂
Fig. 5.5 對流邊界層之風速, 風向及位溫隨高度的變化
Fig. 5.6 夜間穩定PBL之位溫, 風及Ri隨高度之變化