Introduction to cloud
computing
Jiaheng Lu
Department of Computer Science
Renmin University of China
www.jiahenglu.net
Cloud computing
Review:
What is cloud computing?
Cloud computing is a style of computing
in which dynamically scalable and often
virtualized resources are provided as a
serve over the Internet.
Users need not have knowledge of,
expertise in, or control over the technology
infrastructure in the "cloud" that supports
them.
Review: Characteristics of cloud
computing

Virtual.
software, databases, Web servers,
operating systems, storage and networking
as virtual servers.

On demand.
add and subtract processors, memory,
network bandwidth, storage.
Review: Types of cloud service
SaaS
Software as a Service
PaaS
Platform as a Service
IaaS
Infrastructure as a Service
Any question and any comments ?
2016/3/16
8
Distributed system
Why distributed systems?
What are the advantages?
distributed
multi-server
vs
vs
centralized?
client-server?
Why distributed systems?
What are the advantages?
distributed
multi-server
vs
vs
centralized?
client-server?
Geography
Concurrency => Speed
High-availability (if failures occur).
Why not distributed systems?
What are the disadvantages?
distributed
multi-server
vs
vs
centralized?
client-server?
Why not distributed systems?
What are the disadvantages?
distributed
multi-server
vs
vs
centralized?
client-server?
Expensive (to have redundancy)
Concurrency => Interleaving => Bugs
Failures lead to incorrectness.
Google Cloud computing techniques
Google File System
MapReduce model
Bigtable data storage platform
The Google File System
The Google File System
(GFS)
A scalable distributed file system for large
distributed data intensive applications
Multiple GFS clusters are currently deployed.
The largest ones have:
1000+ storage nodes
300+ TeraBytes of disk storage
heavily accessed by hundreds of clients on distinct
machines
Introduction
Shares many same goals as previous
distributed file systems
performance, scalability, reliability, etc
GFS design has been driven by four key
observation of Google application
workloads and technological environment
Intro: Observations 1
1.
Component failures are the norm
constant monitoring, error detection, fault tolerance and
automatic recovery are integral to the system
2.
Huge files (by traditional standards)
Multi GB files are common
I/O operations and blocks sizes must be revisited
Intro: Observations 2
3.
Most files are mutated by appending
new data
This is the focus of performance optimization and atomicity
guarantees
4.
Co-designing the applications and
APIs benefits overall system by
increasing flexibility
The Design
Cluster consists of a single master and
multiple chunkservers and is accessed
by multiple clients
The Master
Maintains all file system metadata.
names space, access control info, file to chunk
mappings, chunk (including replicas) location, etc.
Periodically communicates with
chunkservers in HeartBeat messages
to give instructions and check state
The Master
Helps make sophisticated chunk
placement and replication decision, using
global knowledge
For reading and writing, client contacts
Master to get chunk locations, then deals
directly with chunkservers
Master is not a bottleneck for reads/writes
Chunkservers
Files are broken into chunks. Each chunk has
a immutable globally unique 64-bit chunkhandle.
handle is assigned by the master at chunk creation
Chunk size is 64 MB
Each chunk is replicated on 3 (default)
servers
Clients
Linked to apps using the file system API.
Communicates with master and
chunkservers for reading and writing
Master interactions only for metadata
Chunkserver interactions for data
Only caches metadata information
Data is too large to cache.
Chunk Locations
Master does not keep a persistent
record of locations of chunks and
replicas.
Polls chunkservers at startup, and when
new chunkservers join/leave for this.
Stays up to date by controlling placement
of new chunks and through HeartBeat
messages (when monitoring
chunkservers)
Operation Log
Record of all critical metadata changes
Stored on Master and replicated on other
machines
Defines order of concurrent operations
Changes not visible to clients until they
propigate to all chunk replicas
Also used to recover the file system state
System Interactions:
Leases and Mutation Order
Leases maintain a mutation order across all
chunk replicas
Master grants a lease to a replica, called the
primary
The primary choses the serial mutation order,
and all replicas follow this order
Minimizes management overhead for the Master
System Interactions:
Leases and Mutation Order
Atomic Record Append
Client specifies the data to write; GFS
chooses and returns the offset it writes to and
appends the data to each replica at least
once
Heavily used by Google’s Distributed
applications.
No need for a distributed lock manager
GFS choses the offset, not the client
Atomic Record Append: How?
•
•
•
Follows similar control flow as mutations
Primary tells secondary replicas to append
at the same offset as the primary
If a replica append fails at any replica, it is
retried by the client.
So replicas of the same chunk may contain different data,
including duplicates, whole or in part, of the same record
Atomic Record Append: How?
•
GFS does not guarantee that all replicas
are bitwise identical.
Only guarantees that data is written at
least once in an atomic unit.
Data must be written at the same offset for
all chunk replicas for success to be reported.
Replica Placement
Placement policy maximizes data reliability and
network bandwidth
Spread replicas not only across machines, but also
across racks
Guards against machine failures, and racks getting damaged or
going offline
Reads for a chunk exploit aggregate bandwidth of
multiple racks
Writes have to flow through multiple racks
tradeoff made willingly
Chunk creation
created and placed by master.
placed on chunkservers with below
average disk utilization
limit number of recent “creations” on a
chunkserver
with creations comes lots of writes
Detecting Stale Replicas
•
•
•
•
•
Master has a chunk version number to distinguish
up to date and stale replicas
Increase version when granting a lease
If a replica is not available, its version is not
increased
master detects stale replicas when a chunkservers
report chunks and versions
Remove stale replicas during garbage collection
Garbage collection
When a client deletes a file, master logs it like
other changes and changes filename to a hidden
file.
Master removes files hidden for longer than 3
days when scanning file system name space
metadata is also erased
During HeartBeat messages, the chunkservers
send the master a subset of its chunks, and the
master tells it which files have no metadata.
Chunkserver removes these files on its own
Fault Tolerance:
High Availability
•
Fast recovery
Master and chunkservers can restart in seconds
•
•
Chunk Replication
Master Replication
“shadow” masters provide read-only access when primary
master is down
mutations not done until recorded on all master replicas
Fault Tolerance:
Data Integrity
Chunkservers use checksums to detect
corrupt data
Since replicas are not bitwise identical, chunkservers
maintain their own checksums
For reads, chunkserver verifies checksum
before sending chunk
Update checksums during writes
Google File System
MapReduce model
Bigtable data storage platform
Introduction to
MapReduce
MapReduce: Insight
 ”Consider
the problem of counting the
number of occurrences of each word in a
large collection of documents”
 How
would you do it in parallel ?
MapReduce Programming Model

Inspired from map and reduce operations
commonly used in functional programming
languages like Lisp.

Users implement interface of two primary
methods:
 1.
Map: (key1, val1) → (key2, val2)
 2. Reduce: (key2, [val2]) → [val3]
Map operation

Map, a pure function, written by the user, takes
an input key/value pair and produces a set of
intermediate key/value pairs.
 e.g.

(doc—id, doc-content)
Draw an analogy to SQL, map can be visualized
as group-by clause of an aggregate query.
Reduce operation
 On
completion of map phase, all the
intermediate values for a given output key
are combined together into a list and given to
a reducer.
 Can
be visualized as aggregate function
(e.g., average) that is computed over all the
rows with the same group-by attribute.
Pseudo-code
map(String input_key, String input_value):
// input_key: document name
// input_value: document contents
for each word w in input_value:
EmitIntermediate(w, "1");
reduce(String output_key, Iterator intermediate_values):
// output_key: a word
// output_values: a list of counts
int result = 0;
for each v in intermediate_values:
result += ParseInt(v);
Emit(AsString(result));
MapReduce: Execution overview
MapReduce: Example
MapReduce in Parallel: Example
MapReduce: Fault Tolerance

Handled via re-execution of tasks.

Task completion committed through master

What happens if Mapper fails ?

Re-execute completed + in-progress map tasks

What happens if Reducer fails ?

Re-execute in progress reduce tasks

What happens if Master fails ?

Potential trouble !!
MapReduce:
Walk through of One more
Application
MapReduce : PageRank

PageRank models the behavior of a “random surfer”.
n
PR( x)  (1  d )  d 
i 1
PR(ti )
C (ti )

C(t) is the out-degree of t, and (1-d) is a damping factor (random
jump)

The “random surfer” keeps clicking on successive links at random
not taking content into consideration.

Distributes its pages rank equally among all pages it links to.

The dampening factor takes the surfer “getting bored” and
typing arbitrary URL.
PageRank : Key Insights

Effects at each iteration is local. i+1th iteration
depends only on ith iteration

At iteration i, PageRank for individual nodes can be
computed independently
PageRank using MapReduce
 Use

Sparse matrix representation (M)
Map each row of M to a list of PageRank
“credit” to assign to out link neighbours.
 These
prestige scores are reduced to a
single PageRank value for a page by
aggregating over them.
PageRank using MapReduce
Map: distribute PageRank “credit” to link targets
Reduce: gather up PageRank “credit” from multiple
sources to compute new PageRank value
Iterate until
convergence
Source of Image: Lin 2008
Phase 1: Process HTML
 Map
task takes (URL, page-content) pairs
and maps them to (URL, (PRinit, list-of-urls))
is the “seed” PageRank for URL
 list-of-urls contains all pages pointed to by URL
 PRinit
 Reduce
task is just the identity function
Phase 2: PageRank Distribution
 Reduce
task gets (URL, url_list) and many
(URL, val) values
 Sum
vals and fix up with d to get new PR
 Emit (URL, (new_rank, url_list))
 Check
for convergence using non parallel
component
MapReduce: Some More Apps

Distributed Grep.

Count of URL Access
Frequency.

Clustering (K-means)

Graph Algorithms.

Indexing Systems
MapReduce Programs In Google
Source Tree
MapReduce: Extensions and
similar apps
 PIG
(Yahoo)
 Hadoop
(Apache)
 DryadLinq
(Microsoft)
Large Scale Systems Architecture using
MapReduce
User App
MapReduce
Distributed File Systems (GFS)
Google File System
MapReduce model
Bigtable data storage platform
BigTable: A Distributed
Storage System for Structured
Data
Introduction


BigTable is a distributed storage system for
managing structured data.
Designed to scale to a very large size


Used for many Google projects


Petabytes of data across thousands of servers
Web indexing, Personalized Search, Google Earth,
Google Analytics, Google Finance, …
Flexible, high-performance solution for all of
Google’s products
Motivation

Lots of (semi-)structured data at Google

URLs:


Per-user data:


User preference settings, recent queries/search results, …
Geographic locations:


Contents, crawl metadata, links, anchors, pagerank, …
Physical entities (shops, restaurants, etc.), roads, satellite
image data, user annotations, …
Scale is large



Billions of URLs, many versions/page (~20K/version)
Hundreds of millions of users, thousands or q/sec
100TB+ of satellite image data
Why not just use commercial
DB?


Scale is too large for most commercial
databases
Even if it weren’t, cost would be very high


Building internally means system can be applied
across many projects for low incremental cost
Low-level storage optimizations help
performance significantly

Much harder to do when running on top of a database
layer
Goals

Want asynchronous processes to be
continuously updating different pieces of data


Need to support:




Want access to most current data at any time
Very high read/write rates (millions of ops per second)
Efficient scans over all or interesting subsets of data
Efficient joins of large one-to-one and one-to-many
datasets
Often want to examine data changes over time

E.g. Contents of a web page over multiple crawls
BigTable



Distributed multi-level map
Fault-tolerant, persistent
Scalable





Thousands of servers
Terabytes of in-memory data
Petabyte of disk-based data
Millions of reads/writes per second, efficient scans
Self-managing


Servers can be added/removed dynamically
Servers adjust to load imbalance
Building Blocks

Building blocks:





Google File System (GFS): Raw storage
Scheduler: schedules jobs onto machines
Lock service: distributed lock manager
MapReduce: simplified large-scale data processing
BigTable uses of building blocks:




GFS: stores persistent data (SSTable file format for
storage of data)
Scheduler: schedules jobs involved in BigTable
serving
Lock service: master election, location bootstrapping
Map Reduce: often used to read/write BigTable data
Basic Data Model

A BigTable is a sparse, distributed persistent
multi-dimensional sorted map
(row, column, timestamp) -> cell contents

Good match for most Google applications
WebTable Example




Want to keep copy of a large collection of web pages
and related information
Use URLs as row keys
Various aspects of web page as column names
Store contents of web pages in the contents: column
under the timestamps when they were fetched.
Rows

Name is an arbitrary string



Access to data in a row is atomic
Row creation is implicit upon storing data
Rows ordered lexicographically

Rows close together lexicographically usually on
one or a small number of machines
Rows (cont.)
Reads of short row ranges are efficient and
typically require communication with a small
number of machines.
 Can exploit this property by selecting row
keys so they get good locality for data
access.
 Example:
math.gatech.edu, math.uga.edu, phys.gatech.edu, phys.uga.edu
VS
edu.gatech.math, edu.gatech.phys, edu.uga.math, edu.uga.phys
Columns

Columns have two-level name structure:


Column family



family:optional_qualifier
Unit of access control
Has associated type information
Qualifier gives unbounded columns

Additional levels of indexing, if desired
Timestamps

Used to store different versions of data in a cell


Lookup options:



New writes default to current time, but timestamps for writes can also be
set explicitly by clients
“Return most recent K values”
“Return all values in timestamp range (or all values)”
Column families can be marked w/ attributes:


“Only retain most recent K values in a cell”
“Keep values until they are older than K seconds”
Implementation – Three Major
Components


Library linked into every client
One master server

Responsible for:





Assigning tablets to tablet servers
Detecting addition and expiration of tablet servers
Balancing tablet-server load
Garbage collection
Many tablet servers


Tablet servers handle read and write requests to its
table
Splits tablets that have grown too large
Implementation (cont.)


Client data doesn’t move through master
server. Clients communicate directly with
tablet servers for reads and writes.
Most clients never communicate with the
master server, leaving it lightly loaded in
practice.
Tablets

Large tables broken into tablets at row
boundaries

Tablet holds contiguous range of rows



Clients can often choose row keys to achieve locality
Aim for ~100MB to 200MB of data per tablet
Serving machine responsible for ~100 tablets

Fast recovery:


100 machines each pick up 1 tablet for failed machine
Fine-grained load balancing:


Migrate tablets away from overloaded machine
Master makes load-balancing decisions
Tablet Location

Since tablets move around from server to
server, given a row, how do clients find the
right machine?

Need to find tablet whose row range covers the
target row
Tablet Assignment



Each tablet is assigned to one tablet server at
a time.
Master server keeps track of the set of live
tablet servers and current assignments of
tablets to servers. Also keeps track of
unassigned tablets.
When a tablet is unassigned, master assigns
the tablet to an tablet server with sufficient
room.
API

Metadata operations


Writes (atomic)




Create/delete tables, column families, change metadata
Set(): write cells in a row
DeleteCells(): delete cells in a row
DeleteRow(): delete all cells in a row
Reads

Scanner: read arbitrary cells in a bigtable




Each row read is atomic
Can restrict returned rows to a particular range
Can ask for just data from 1 row, all rows, etc.
Can ask for all columns, just certain column families, or specific
columns
Refinements: Locality Groups

Can group multiple column families into a
locality group


Separate SSTable is created for each locality
group in each tablet.
Segregating columns families that are not
typically accessed together enables more
efficient reads.

In WebTable, page metadata can be in one group
and contents of the page in another group.
Refinements: Compression

Many opportunities for compression




Two-pass custom compressions scheme



Similar values in the same row/column at different
timestamps
Similar values in different columns
Similar values across adjacent rows
First pass: compress long common strings across a
large window
Second pass: look for repetitions in small window
Speed emphasized, but good space reduction
(10-to-1)
Refinements: Bloom Filters


Read operation has to read from disk when
desired SSTable isn’t in memory
Reduce number of accesses by specifying a
Bloom filter.



Allows us ask if an SSTable might contain data for a
specified row/column pair.
Small amount of memory for Bloom filters drastically
reduces the number of disk seeks for read operations
Use implies that most lookups for non-existent rows or
columns do not need to touch disk
BigTable: A Distributed
Storage System for Structured
Data
Introduction


BigTable is a distributed storage system for
managing structured data.
Designed to scale to a very large size


Used for many Google projects


Petabytes of data across thousands of servers
Web indexing, Personalized Search, Google Earth,
Google Analytics, Google Finance, …
Flexible, high-performance solution for all of
Google’s products
Motivation

Lots of (semi-)structured data at Google

URLs:


Per-user data:


User preference settings, recent queries/search results, …
Geographic locations:


Contents, crawl metadata, links, anchors, pagerank, …
Physical entities (shops, restaurants, etc.), roads, satellite
image data, user annotations, …
Scale is large



Billions of URLs, many versions/page (~20K/version)
Hundreds of millions of users, thousands or q/sec
100TB+ of satellite image data
Why not just use commercial
DB?


Scale is too large for most commercial
databases
Even if it weren’t, cost would be very high


Building internally means system can be applied
across many projects for low incremental cost
Low-level storage optimizations help
performance significantly

Much harder to do when running on top of a database
layer
Goals

Want asynchronous processes to be
continuously updating different pieces of data


Need to support:




Want access to most current data at any time
Very high read/write rates (millions of ops per second)
Efficient scans over all or interesting subsets of data
Efficient joins of large one-to-one and one-to-many
datasets
Often want to examine data changes over time

E.g. Contents of a web page over multiple crawls
BigTable



Distributed multi-level map
Fault-tolerant, persistent
Scalable





Thousands of servers
Terabytes of in-memory data
Petabyte of disk-based data
Millions of reads/writes per second, efficient scans
Self-managing


Servers can be added/removed dynamically
Servers adjust to load imbalance
Building Blocks

Building blocks:





Google File System (GFS): Raw storage
Scheduler: schedules jobs onto machines
Lock service: distributed lock manager
MapReduce: simplified large-scale data processing
BigTable uses of building blocks:




GFS: stores persistent data (SSTable file format for
storage of data)
Scheduler: schedules jobs involved in BigTable
serving
Lock service: master election, location bootstrapping
Map Reduce: often used to read/write BigTable data
Basic Data Model

A BigTable is a sparse, distributed persistent
multi-dimensional sorted map
(row, column, timestamp) -> cell contents

Good match for most Google applications
WebTable Example




Want to keep copy of a large collection of web pages
and related information
Use URLs as row keys
Various aspects of web page as column names
Store contents of web pages in the contents: column
under the timestamps when they were fetched.
Rows

Name is an arbitrary string



Access to data in a row is atomic
Row creation is implicit upon storing data
Rows ordered lexicographically

Rows close together lexicographically usually on
one or a small number of machines
Rows (cont.)
Reads of short row ranges are efficient and
typically require communication with a small
number of machines.
 Can exploit this property by selecting row
keys so they get good locality for data
access.
 Example:
math.gatech.edu, math.uga.edu, phys.gatech.edu, phys.uga.edu
VS
edu.gatech.math, edu.gatech.phys, edu.uga.math, edu.uga.phys
Columns

Columns have two-level name structure:


Column family



family:optional_qualifier
Unit of access control
Has associated type information
Qualifier gives unbounded columns

Additional levels of indexing, if desired
Timestamps

Used to store different versions of data in a cell


Lookup options:



New writes default to current time, but timestamps for writes can also be
set explicitly by clients
“Return most recent K values”
“Return all values in timestamp range (or all values)”
Column families can be marked w/ attributes:


“Only retain most recent K values in a cell”
“Keep values until they are older than K seconds”
Implementation – Three Major
Components


Library linked into every client
One master server

Responsible for:





Assigning tablets to tablet servers
Detecting addition and expiration of tablet servers
Balancing tablet-server load
Garbage collection
Many tablet servers


Tablet servers handle read and write requests to its
table
Splits tablets that have grown too large
Implementation (cont.)


Client data doesn’t move through master
server. Clients communicate directly with
tablet servers for reads and writes.
Most clients never communicate with the
master server, leaving it lightly loaded in
practice.
Tablets

Large tables broken into tablets at row
boundaries

Tablet holds contiguous range of rows



Clients can often choose row keys to achieve locality
Aim for ~100MB to 200MB of data per tablet
Serving machine responsible for ~100 tablets

Fast recovery:


100 machines each pick up 1 tablet for failed machine
Fine-grained load balancing:


Migrate tablets away from overloaded machine
Master makes load-balancing decisions
Tablet Location

Since tablets move around from server to
server, given a row, how do clients find the
right machine?

Need to find tablet whose row range covers the
target row
Tablet Assignment



Each tablet is assigned to one tablet server at
a time.
Master server keeps track of the set of live
tablet servers and current assignments of
tablets to servers. Also keeps track of
unassigned tablets.
When a tablet is unassigned, master assigns
the tablet to an tablet server with sufficient
room.
API

Metadata operations


Writes (atomic)




Create/delete tables, column families, change metadata
Set(): write cells in a row
DeleteCells(): delete cells in a row
DeleteRow(): delete all cells in a row
Reads

Scanner: read arbitrary cells in a bigtable




Each row read is atomic
Can restrict returned rows to a particular range
Can ask for just data from 1 row, all rows, etc.
Can ask for all columns, just certain column families, or specific
columns
Refinements: Locality Groups
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Can group multiple column families into a
locality group
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Separate SSTable is created for each locality
group in each tablet.
Segregating columns families that are not
typically accessed together enables more
efficient reads.

In WebTable, page metadata can be in one group
and contents of the page in another group.
Refinements: Compression

Many opportunities for compression




Two-pass custom compressions scheme
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
Similar values in the same row/column at different
timestamps
Similar values in different columns
Similar values across adjacent rows
First pass: compress long common strings across a
large window
Second pass: look for repetitions in small window
Speed emphasized, but good space reduction
(10-to-1)
Refinements: Bloom Filters


Read operation has to read from disk when
desired SSTable isn’t in memory
Reduce number of accesses by specifying a
Bloom filter.



Allows us ask if an SSTable might contain data for a
specified row/column pair.
Small amount of memory for Bloom filters drastically
reduces the number of disk seeks for read operations
Use implies that most lookups for non-existent rows or
columns do not need to touch disk