Ibn Khaldun
(1332-1395)
The Muqaddimah
Malaspina Great Books
Outline
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Why we are reading this book
a. Understand “Islamic” Paradigm
b. “Islamic” Influence on Renaissance
c. “Islamic” vs. “Christian” World Views
d. Birth of “Scientific Method”
e. Roles of “Science” in both Cultures
Islamic Empire
Christian & Islamic Stereotypes
The Crusades: Then & Now
Islamic Cultural Achievements in Arts & Science
Muhammad & Islam as a Religion
Sharia Law & Women
Liberal Islam (Khaldun’s Influence)
Ibn Khaldun: background & influence
Khaldun: Key Terms
Khaldun’s Methodology
Observations (on right)
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uniqueness
prophesy
group feeling
royal authority
sedentary civilization
economics
reality
thinking
angels
prophets & knowledge
how science emerges
two types of science
traditional science (Sufism,
dreams, theology)
happiness
Intellectual science (logic,
physics, metaphysics,
mathematics)
other sciences (sorcery, alchemy,
astrology)
refutation of philosophy
education & pedagogy
Light Green: Sunni Dark Green: Shia
Christian Stereotype of Islamic Culture
- Muslims as “infidels”
- Muslims hate “non-believers”
- Muslims are “fanatics”
- Misperception of Jihad
- Muslims as “Medieval”
- Women are oppressed
- Muslims as unoriginal (copyists)
Islamic Stereotype of Christian Culture
- No family values
- Materialists
- Immoral
- Women promiscuous
- Women Oppressed
- Hypocrites
Massacre of Marra (Ma'arrat Syria)
Dec 12, 1098
20,000 massacred
"A terrible famine racked the army in Ma'arra,
and placed it in the cruel neccessity of
feeding itself upon the bodies of the
Saracens." (letter to Pope Urban II)
"In Ma'arra our troops boiled pagan adults
alive in cooking-pots; they impaled children
on spits and devoured them grilled."
(Radulph of Caen)
"Not only did our troops not shrink from
eating dead Turks and Saracens; they also
ate dogs!“ (Albert of Aix)
“The small city of Ma'arra east of Antioch,
falls to the crusades. The crusaders shock
the Muslim world by eating human flesh from
the adults and children massacred following
their conquest. The Frankians would forever
be referred to by Turkish historians as
‘cannibals’.” (Encyclopaedia of the Orient)
A Legacy of Distrust
Islamic Preservation of Greek
Heritage
• Major translations c. 750-800
• al-Kindi (800-865), first Major Philosopher (original ideas
on science; challenges Greek Metaphysics)
• al-Farabi (870-950) - ranked with Aristotle as “2nd
teacher;” Islamic philosophy; concept of Prophethood
explained; revelation & philosophy joined as two roads to
truth; original reconciliation of Plato & Aristotle
• Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1036) – al-qunan (Canon of
Medicine)
• al-Ghazali (1058-1111) – jurisprudence & theology;
endorses logic, math, astronomy & physics; refutation of
the metaphysics of philosophy
(continued)
• Ibn-Rushd (Averroes) (1126-1198); major commentator
on Aristotle; widely translated in medieval Europe; highly
respected but seen as a “secondary source” and as such
responsible for perspective that Islamic philosophy was
not original; marks end of “classical Islamic era”
Islamic Contributions to Science
• Ibn Haiyan (c. 776) - alchemist/chemist & astrolab
• al-Harrani (826-901) – basis for non-Euclidean geometry,
spherical trigonometry, integral calculus and real
numbers.
• al-Battani (868-929) – Astronomy, his Zig influenced
renaissance astronomy; solar year (365 d 5 h 46 m 24 s)
• al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936-1013) medicine,
cauterization, removal of stone from the bladder,
dissection of animals, midwifery, stypics, and surgery of
eye, ear and throat. He perfected several delicate
operations, including removal of the dead foetus and
amputation. problem of non-aligned or deformed teeth
and how to rectify these defects. He developed the
technique of preparing artificial teeth and of replacement
of defective teeth by these. In medicine, he was the first
to describe in detail the unusual disease, hemophilia.
(Islamic Science continued)
• al-Buzjani (940-998) – founder of trigonometry
• al-Haytham (alhazen) (965-1040) - optics (foundation of
perspective)
• Ibn Sina (980-10-37) – quintessential “renaissance” man:
medicine, math, physics, philosophy, theology, logic,
metaphysics
• al-Khawarizmi (1100-1166) – wrote Al-Jabrwa-alMuqabilah (Algebra - invented); invented zero,
decimals, arabic numerals
• al-Baitar (1188-1248) – botanist, pharmacist
• al-Nafis (1210-1288) – circulatory system (rediscovered
by Harvey 300 years later)
Muhammad (c. 570-632)
Muhammad (c. 570-632)
• 610 – merchant who was visited (age 40) by angel
Gabriel in cave near Mecca; told he was last prophet;
ordered to memorize verses sent to him by God (Koran)
• Did not reject Christianity or Judiasm – instead tried to
“perfect” them
• 620 – Isra and Miraj (miraculous journey) – travels in one
night from Mecca to Jurusalem then heaven and hell:
speaks to Abraham, Moses and Jesus
• 622 – Hijra (flight to Medina) & beginning of Muslim
calendar; there he establishes 1st Islamic state under
principle of religious tolerance (rival Byzantine was
intolerant)
• 622-630 – wars with Mecca
(Life of Muhammad - Continued)
• Companions of Muhammad: analogous to apostles –
transmit Hadith (all traditions associated with the
prophet) – analogous to written and oral traditions of
Christians
• On death (632) succeeded by Abu Bakr as first caliph
(successor analogous to pope or bishop)
• Islam divided into two sects: Sunni (80%) & Shia (20%)
• Differences rooted in disputes over proper succession
• Theological differences over jurisprudence (Hadith)
• Taliban & Al Qaeda – extremist Sunni (analagous to
fundamentalist Christian sects)
Sharia
• Islamic law
• Islam classically draws no distinction between religious,
and secular life.
• In deriving Sharia law, Islamic lawmakers attempt to
interpret divine principles but make no claim to
infallibility.
• Like Jewish law and Christian canon law, Islamic law is
interpreted differently by different people in different
times and places. In the hands of moderates, religious
law can be moderate and even liberal. In the hands of
post-Enlightenment readers of philosophy, religious law
becomes associated mainly with ritual, theology, or
history and no longer regulates society or the state.
Women under Sharia Law
• Islam does not prohibit women from working
• women are generally not allowed to be clergy or religious scholars
• Some view Islamic women as being oppressed by the men in their
communities because of dress codes.
• According to most interpretations, authorization for a husband to
physically beat disobedient wives is given in the Qur'an (but much
dispute over meanings)
• “Honor Killings” of adulterous wives are not part of Islamic teaching
but a cultural practice in parts of ther Islamic world
• Female circumcision is also not part of Islamic teaching (but is a
cultural practice justified on religious grounds – Islamic & Christian –
in parts of Africa)
• Apostasy – conversion to other religions forbidden
• Freedom of Speech – situation analagous to pre-enlightenment (17th
c. Christian states)
Liberal Islam (Khaldun as father?)
• Based on freedom to reinterpret scripture from a personal
perspective rather than the traditional Muslim point of view.
• Liberals claim they are returning to principles of early Muslim
community and to the ethical and pluralistic intent of their scripture
(Ibn Khaldun used as a guide).
• Claim this approach rooted in Sufism
• Principles: 1) individual interpretation; 2) critical reading of Islamic
text; 3) complete gender equality; 4) more open view on modern
culture in realtion to customs, dress, and common practices; 5) In
addition to the use of Itjihad (traditional interpretation), the use of the
Islamic concept of fitrah (innate disposition towards virtue,
knowledge, and beauty) or the natural sense of right and wrong, is
advocated.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395)
(Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad)
• Born Tunisia
• Lived Cairo, Egypt as Judge & Academic
at Al-Azhar University (world’s oldest university founded 971 AD)
Primarily known for Muqaddimah or
'Prolegomena' which identifies the
psychological, economic, environmental and
social facts that contribute to the
advancement of human civilization and the
currents of history (in contrast to political
context of history).
Analyzed the dynamics of group relationships
and showed how group feelings, al-'Asabiyya,
give rise to the ascent of a new civilization.
The other 6 volumes of his world history Kitab
al-I'bar deal with the history of contemporary
Muslim & European rulers, ancient history of
Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, etc.
The last volume deals largely with the events
of his own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This
was also written in a scientific manner and
initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of
writing autobiography.
A book on math written by him is not extant.
General Influence
• Influence on the subjects of history,
philosophy of history, sociology,
political science and education
• Muqaddimah considered in league with
and rival of Machiavelli’s The Prince
(written a century later)
Educational Influence
Khaldun’s analysis concludes that science
& education & teaching determine cultural
prosperity & that “open minded thinking”
about unknown principles and crossing
disciplines is key; advocates
comprehensive but staged education
using simple humane (non-aggressive)
methods combining balanced mix of
theory & practice.
Influence on Sociology
• Underlying Laws of Economics and Social
behavior created by God;
• Such Laws can be shown scientifically to
produce best social policies;
• Laws dictate limited state functions: defense, to
protect property, to prevent fraud; to safeguard
currency; wise leadership
• Condemns high taxes & government competition
with private sphere (lowers productivity &
destroys incentive)
Khaldun’s Intellectual Orientation
• Wholesome restraint;
• Readiness to question everything;
• Unwillingness to stray from verifiable or
experiential or observational data;
Key Terms: Thinking
• Thinking: Humans take “pictures” of
sensibilia and abstract other pictures that
are beyond sense. Thinking involves
application of mind to analysis and
synthesis of these abstract pictures
(beyond sense). Three types of thinking:
discerning, experimental and theoretical
(speculative).
Key Terms: Apperception
• Conclusions of thinking (i.e. critical
thinking). Purpose is to acquire knowledge
of reality. Apperceptions become
perceptions often at levels beyond sense
perception
Methodology of Khaldun’s Science of Civilization
• Insistent need for correction and
verification of historical information;
• Requires first a knowledge of natural
social organization;
• Historical facts (theoretically) useful when
they conform to natural organization;
• This will lead to a normative qunan (law)
that can distinguish right from wrong and
truth from falsehood
Khaldun’s Description of his Science
• An “Original” Science;
• Objects of science: 1) Local Human Social
Organization, and 2) World Civilization;
• Purpose of Science: to explain conditions
that attach themselves to civilization;
• Utility: cultural prosperity through
education
Observations & Discussion
The Muqaddimah
Uniqueness of humans
• Man (p. 42): 1) science & craft from
capacity to think; 2) need for authority; 3)
need to earn a living; 4) civilization
Prophecy
• Prophecy is not a natural quality of man
and is thus not an integral component of
the science (p.47) – [influence in Islamic
secularism]
Group Feeling
• (Respect for) blood ties is something
natural among men … It leads to affection
for one’s relations and blood relatives, (the
feeling that) no harm ought to befall them
nor any destruction come upon them
…(p.98)
Royal Authority & Sedentary Civilization
• Religious propaganda emerges (naturally) from
group feeling
• Royal authority then catalyzed by religious
propaganda by minimizing jealousies and
inculcating search for common truths
• Dynasties enable the dispense of group feeling,
the foundation of the state, the growth of
civilization and the emergence of new group
feelings (p. 130) and sedentary civilizations (p.
263-95)
Profit, Property and Economics
• … the capital a person earns and
acquires, if resulting from a craft, is the
value realized from his labour. This is the
meaning of ‘acquired (capital)’. There is
nothing here originally except the labour,
and it is not desired by itself as acquired
(capital, but as the value realized from
it)…(p.298) [basis of Marxist arguments]
Meaning of Human Reality
• Discerning intellect: perceptions of things
in outside world
• Experimental intellect: apperceptions of
rules for behavior (in social context)
• Speculative intellect: beyond sense
perception; road to perfection; meaning of
human reality
Importance of Thinking
• ‘The beginning of action is the end of
thinking, and the beginning of thinking is
the end of action.’ (p.335)
• Experimental intellect needed for political
action. (p. 337) – contrary to idea of
philosopher king
Angels
• Since there is a world of thought beyond
sense perception, Khaldun deduces there
must be a category of intelligence in that
world (known to us by its influence on us
in activity of speculative intellect) –
[argument from logic not revelation]
Knowledge of the Prophets
• Prophesy is direct observation of visions of
the world of world of angelicality [known to
us through logic] by those so gifted, and
transmitted to world of sensibility as
revelation
How Science comes to be
• As civilization advances, surplus labour
becomes available; that labour is used for
activities beyond the need to earn a living.
(p.343)
Two types of Science
• Philosophical or intellectual sciences associated
with thinking.
• Traditional legal sciences associated with the
law as transmitted in the Koran (jurisprudence,
etc.) and Sunnah (traditions). Khaldun
enummerates differences in legal approach
between Sunni (more literal & traditional
approach) & Shia (based on analogous
approaches) traditions.
Traditional Science: Sufism
• Removal of the “veil” through asceticism. Similar
to Christian mysticism. Goal to see the worlds of
apperceptions as in a “mirror”
• Profoundly “meditative” (as such similar to
approaches of Stoics, Buddhists, Platonists and
Christians) and provides channels that allow
convergences between religious traditions
(vehicle also for Liberal Islamic thought).
Traditional Science: Dreams
• Clarity of perceptions available to
prophets. Such prophetic dreams clearly
distinct from run-of-the-mill “confused” or
“imaginative” dreams. [discussion of
imaginative dream analysis on p. 370 very
similar to Freud’s interpretive approach
(serpents, oceans, receptacles, etc.)]
Traditional Science: Speculative Theology
• A corrective science only. All Muslims
commanded to believe in the oneness of
God as the source and cause of all that is.
Any speculation (especially about
causality) beyond this is both fruitless and
forbidden (p. 348-9). [This restriction
suggests a significant difference between
Islamic vs. Christian philosophical
approaches and world view] … ‘The
inability to perceive is perception’
Happiness is …
• Recognition and acceptance of the
oneness of God
• Accepted through “faith”
• In Islam faith comes in two levels: 1)
affirmation by the heart of what the tongue
says (blind faith??) and 2) acquisition of a
quality that has complete control over the
heart (similar to Christian idea of “F”aith as
free gift of God) … (p. 352)
Intellectual Sciences (philosophy)
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Logic
Physics
Metaphysics
Mathematical (geometry, arithmetic,
music, astronomy)
Logic
• Provides ability to discern truth (within
limits of ability to think – thus excludes
application to revealed truths)
Physics
• Study of elemental substances perceived
by the senses and their natural motions
Metaphysics
• Logical study of spiritual matters
Mathematical Sciences
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Geometry (shapes)
Arithmetic (numbers)
Music (proportions of sounds and modes)
Astronomy (shapes & motions of heavenly
bodies)
Comments on Other Sciences
• Sorcery (influence of mental power –
today would be acknowledged as
psychological phenomena)
• Alchemy (refutes)
• Astrology (refutes)
• Philosophy (refutes!!!)
Refutation of Philosophy
• Discusses process of apperception of sensibila
into intelligibilia and acknowledges debt to
Greeks and Aristotle in particular for these
achievements.
• Error of philosophy is to equate happiness with
the perception of all existentia (existing things).
Islam maintains that spiritualia is a domain not
accessible to reason and it is knowledge of this
realm (the oneness of God) that constitutes
happiness.
Educational Approach: Pedagogy
• Students should not be forced to memorize
• Subjects should not be taught in a broken
sequence
• Two subjects should not be taught together
• Appropriate length of subjects taught
• It is harmful to be very strict on a student
• Traveling and conferencing with scholars is
useful for education
• Education should be practical
• Learning science requires skill