The Nature of Motivation
• Motivation
The psychological forces acting on an individual
that determine:
• Direction—possible behaviors the individual could
engage in
• Effort—how hard the individual will work
• Persistence—whether the individual will keep trying
or give up
This is one of the factors that explains why people
behave the way they do in organizations.
• What are some other factors?
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12–1
The Nature of Motivation (cont’d)
• Extrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is performed to acquire material or
social rewards or to avoid punishment.
• Examples?
– What motivate you?
– What motivates others you know?
• Intrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is performed for its own sake.
• Examples?
– What motivates you?
– What motivates others you know?
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12–2
Theories in Motivation
(Expectancy Theory)
• Expectancy Theory
Motivation will be highest when:
Effort  Performance  Desired Outcomes
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12–3
Expectancy Theory, cont’d
Source:
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Figure 12.3
12–4
Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories)
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Five basic needs
Lowest level of unmet need is the primary
motivator
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12–5
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Needs
Highest-level
needs
Lowest-level
needs
Description
Examples
Selfactualization
Realize one’s
full potential
Use abilities
to the fullest
Esteem
Feel good
about oneself
Promotions
and recognition
Belongingness
Social
interaction, love
Interpersonal
relations, parties
Safety
Security, stability
Job security,
health insurance
Physiological
Food, water,
shelter
Basic pay level
to buy items
Lower-level needs must be satisfied
before higher-level needs are addressed.
Table 12.1
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12–6
Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories, cont’d)
• Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Three needs categories
Needs at more than one level can be the
motivator at any time
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12–7
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Needs
Highest-level
needs
Lowest-level
needs
Description
Examples
Growth
Self-development,
creative work
Continually
improve skills
Relatedness
Interpersonal
relations, feelings
Good relations,
accurate feedback
Existence
Food, water,
clothing, and shelter
Adequate pay
for necessities
After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
Source:
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Table 12.2
12–8
Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories)
Let’s stop for a minute …
Why should a manager care about
all these “needs theories”?
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12–9
Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories, cont’d)
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.
Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work—comfortable
work environment, pay, job security.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;
satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to
motivation or job satisfaction.
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12–10
Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories, cont’d)
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation,
and Power
• Need for Achievement
A strong need to perform challenging tasks well
and meet personal standards for excellence
• Need for Affiliation
A concern for good interpersonal relations, being
liked, and getting along
• Need for Power
A desire to control or influence others
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12–11
Theories in Motivation
(Adam’s Equity Theory)
Focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness
(or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in
proportion to their work inputs.
 Equity: input/output ratios are equal
 How would you “restore” equity in …
… underpayment
… overpayment
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12–12
Theories in Motivation
(Goal Setting Theory)
• Focuses on identifying the types of goals that
are effective in producing high levels of
motivation and explaining why goals have
these effects.
• Goals must be:
Specific
Difficult
Include feedback
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12–13
Theories in Motivation
(Learning Theories)
• Theories that focus on increasing motivation
and performance by linking outcomes to
performance and the attainment of goals.
• Learning
A relatively permanent change in person’s
knowledge or behavior that results from practice or
experience.
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12–14
Theories in Motivation
(Learning Theories:
Operant Conditioning Theory)
Operant Conditioning Theory
People learn to perform behaviors that lead to
desired consequences and learn not to perform
behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Extinction
• Punishment
• OB MOD
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12–15
Steps in
Organizational
Behavior
Modification
Figure 12.4
Source: Adapted from
Organizational Behavior
Modification and Beyond by
F. Luthans and R. Kreitner
(Scott, Foresman, 1985). With
permission of the authors.
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12–16
Theories in Motivation
(Learning Theories:
Social Learning Theory)
• A theory that takes into account how learning
and motivation are influenced by people’s
thoughts and beliefs and their observations of
other people’s behavior.
• Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning)
Learning that occurs when a learner is motivated to
perform a behavior by watching another person
perform and be rewarded.
• People are motivated to imitate models who are
highly competent, expert, receive attractive
reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable.
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12–17
Theories in Motivation
(Where does pay fit in?)
• Pay as a Motivator????
Expectancy: pay is an instrumentality (and
outcome), must be high for motivation to be high.
Need Theory: pay is used to satisfy many needs.
Equity Theory: pay is given in relation to inputs.
Goal Setting Theory: pay is linked to attainment of
goals.
Learning Theory: outcomes (pay), is distributed
upon performance of functional behaviors.
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12–18