解釋架構Schema
• 我們對於世界的認知大多為不專注，不
須深思熟慮的半意識活動。我們依賴一
套結構化的先驗知識系統(highly
structured, pre-existing knowledge system)
來解釋世界並作為我們行為的依據。
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個人對於外在世界的解釋架構
解釋架構
認知結構
觀察認知
外在事件
解釋
學習、約定成
俗的信仰與社
會化、權威
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修正既有的
解釋架構
研究方法
對於行為及
事件的因果
關係之解釋
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解釋架構的好處
• 由於過去經驗的累積，行動者通常已經
理出一套不可言傳（tacit knowledge）的
行為方式。 Schema使我們用相同的方式
來處理同類的情境，這些做事通則幫我
們省去不少時間。讓我們不必花腦筋在
熟悉的情境上，可撥出更多的注意力於
複雜、多變的事物中。
• Business Intuition
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解釋架構不但影響你對世界的了解
也影響世界
• 對人性的假設影響人性
對行為、人性的假設：學
生都是懶惰被動的，必須
以嚴格的要求及監督來改
變其行為
人性
human
nature
學生無法養成自動
學習的習慣
對待人的方式：每週小
考、上課點名、重修
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賣花女與淑女的差異
• George Bernard Shaw: Pygmalion
Eliza: “Apart from the things anyone can pick up
(the dressing and the proper way of speaking, and so
on), the difference between a lady and a flower girl
is not how she behaves, but how she’s treated.”
• Pygmalion in the Classroom：
 告訴小學老師20%的班上學童顯示出「特殊的智
性潛力」。八個月後這些學童的IQ成績大幅成長。
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解釋架構的不完美
觀察能力須要透過學習不是與生俱來的能力
開車車距
科學家開研討會的實驗
測量工具的不精準:態度與行為的不一致
工作滿意度、客戶滿意度及購買意願
先驗的解釋架構對觀察的影響
個人文化背景對觀察的影響(棒球vs.鬥牛;罪犯vs.農夫）
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解釋架構的不完美：對資訊解釋及溝通的誤謬
語言對意義的干擾
代表語意與隱含意義：兩車相撞的試驗
語言的脈絡可以引導錯誤的邏輯
A：我有兩個小孩
Ｂ：沒關係
Ａ：我還有一隻狗
Ｂ：哪可不行
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解釋架構的不完美：知識權威
約定成俗的傳統權威
猩猩的香蕉的試驗
群體權威與從眾行為
實驗室排隊
專業權威
最低工資與就業率
電擊試驗
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缺乏檢證的解釋架構可能將我們導入歧途
解釋架構變成通則：
• “愈晚離開辦公室的員工愈認真、勤勞”
• 愈晚離開辦公室的員工做事愈不得法、愈
沒效率“
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The Icarus Paradox
•組織興衰的生命週期十分相似。
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What are the goals of theory?
實證科學的傳統
Prediction
Understanding
To predict phenomena, we must have an
explanation of why variables behave as
they do. Theories provide these
explanations.
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The Meaning of Theory
A theory is a coherent set of general
propositions命題 used to explain the
apparent relationships among certain
observed phenomena. Theories allow
generalizations beyond individual facts
or situations.
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Concepts-the building block of theory
Concepts (概念）--A generalized idea
about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes; an abstraction
of reality that is the basic unit for theory
development.
Concepts are created by classifying and
categorizing分門別類 objects or events
that have common characteristics共同性
質 beyond the single observation.
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Concepts-the building block of theory
Concepts abstract reality and may vary in
degree of abstraction
 The abstract level--in theory development, the
level of knowledge expressing a concept that
exists only as an idea or a quality apart from an
object.
 Empirical level--level of knowledge reflecting
that which is verifiable by experience or
observation.
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Concepts-the building block of theory
 Identify two concepts from the following statement: “Older
workers prefer different rewards than younger workers.”
 two concepts -- age of worker and reward preference.
Researchers are concerned with the observable
world (reality). Theorists translate their
conceptualization of reality into abstract ideas.
Things are not the essence of theory: ideas are.
Concepts in isolation are not theories. Only when
we explain how concepts relate to other concepts
do we begin to construct theories.
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Problems in concept use概念在使用上的問題
people differ in the meanings they include
under the particular label.
 leadership
 motivation
 personality
 social class
 organizational commitment組織忠誠度
The success of research hinges on (1) how
clearly we conceptualize and (2) how well
others understand the
concepts we use.
研究方法
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Variable
A variable is a special kind of concept. They are at
the empirical level and may assume different
numerical values.
Social Science involves the study of variables and
the attributes that compose them.
Attributes or values are characteristics or qualities
that describe an object
Variables are logical groupings of attributes
Male/female are attributes, sex or gender are the
variables composed of those two attributes.
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Operationalization
 Operations involved in measuring a variable. An
operational definition is one stated in terms of specific
testing criteria or operations用可操作的或可測量的標準
來定義. These terms must have empirical referents經驗的
對象 (that is, we must be able to count, measure, or in
some other way gather the information through our senses
能用感官去蒐集的資訊).
 Operationalize the following concepts:
 Firm size
 The degree of competition in the market
 family's total income
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Operationalization
• A concept and the operational definition
are NOT the same thing概念不等同於操
作型定義. Operational definitions
provide only limited insight into what a
concept really is.
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Nature of proposition
Propositions (命題) are statements concerned with
the relationship among concepts. A proposition
explains the logical linkage among concepts by
asserting a universal connection between concepts.
Theories are networks of propositions
(relationships between propositions).
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Hypothesis
A hypothesis is specified expectations about
empirical reality, derived from proposition.
It is an unproven proposition or supposition
that tentatively explains certain facts or
phenomenon; it is empirically testable.
A variable is a special kind of concept.
They are at the empirical level and may
assume different numerical values.
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What is a good hypothesis?
the hypothesis must be testable
The hypothesis must be better than its
rivals
the hypothesis must be simple, requiring
few conditions or assumptions.
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Hypothesis are the empirical
counterpart of propositions
Abstract level
Proposition
Concept A
Degree of demographic
heterogeneity
Empirical level
Concept B
Social integration
Hypothesis
Age, education, gender,
seniority variation
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Turnover,
communication,
conflicts
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A basic theory explaining voluntary job
turnover
Labor market conditions,
number of organizations,
personal characteristics…etc.
Perceived ease of
movement
Job
performance
Intentions to quit
Perceived desirability of
movement (job
satisfaction)
Pay, job complexity,
participation in decision
making…etc.
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研究方法
Job turnover
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A note on the difference between
theories and models
• A model is defined as a representation of a
system that is constructed to study some aspect
of that system or the system as a whole.
• A model is not an explanation. Models differ
from theories in that a theory‘s role is
explanation解釋 whereas a model’s role is
representation表達.
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Verifying theory
There are alternative theories to explain certain
classes of phenomena. To determine which is
the better theory, researchers gather empirical
data or observations to verify the theories.
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Verifying vs. Falsifying Theory
It must be possible to demonstrate that a given
proposition or theory is false…Why “false” rather
than “true”?
Technically, there may be other untested theories
which could account for the results we obtained in
our study of a proposition. At the very least, there
may be a competing explanation which could be
the real explanation for a given set of research
findings. Thus, we can never be certain that our
proposition or theory is the correct one.
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Verifying theory
The scientist can only say, “I have a theory
which I have objectively tested with data
and the data are consistent with my theory.”
if the possibility of proving an idea false or
wrong is not inherent in our test of an idea,
then we cannot put much faith in the
evidence that suggests it to be true. No other
evidence was allowed to manifest itself.
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How are theories generated?
The tradition image of science
Idea/interest
Theoretical understanding
A
B
C
Hypothesis
Y = f(X)
X
Y
Operationalization
y = f(x)
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Hypothesis testing
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Deductive versus inductive reasoning
 The traditional image of science is based on deductive
reasoning.
 Deductive reasoning moves from the general to the specific. It
moves from (1) a pattern that might be logically or theoretically
expected to (2) observation that test whether the expected
pattern actually occurs
 Inductive reasoning moves from the particular to the general,
from a set of specific observations to the discovery of a pattern
that represents some degree of order among all the given
events.
 Notice that deduction begins with “why” and moves to “whether”
while induction moves in the opposite direction.
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Deductive Method
grades
Hypothesis
grades
Reject
hypothesis?
Hours studying
grades
Observation
Hours studying
Hours studying
Inductive Method
grades
Observations
grades Tentative conclusion
Hours studying
grades
Finding a pattern
Hours studying
Hours studying
Deductive versus inductive reasoning
Example: How do we explain stock
performance?
Fundamental and technical analysis
Question: Can you come up with an inductive
and a deductive theory of marriage?
Dependent=是否結婚，從戀愛到結婚的時間，
duration of marriage, divorce probability…etc.
Independent = “distance” of age, education,
socio-economic status…etc.
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The Wheel of Science
Induction
Theories
Empirical
generalizations
Deduction
Hypotheses
Observations
 Both deduction and induction are routes to the construction
of social theories. Theory and research interact through a
never ending alternation of deduction, induction, deduction,
and so forth. It’s a matter of personal choice!
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Deductive theory construction
Pick a topic that interest you and write down
your own observations and ideas about it.
Specify the range of phenomena your theory
address.
Identify and specify your major concepts and
variables.
Find out what is known (propositions) about
the relationships among those variable.
Reason logically from those propositions to the
specific topic you are examining.
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Inductive theory construction
Field research--the direct observation of events
in progress--is frequently used to develop
theories through observation.
Analysis of secondary data may be another way
to the development of inductive theory.
Example : choice of accounting firms.
Example : Job Search
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Combining deduction and induction
• 1) Encounters a curiosity, doubt, barrier, suspicion, or
obstacle.
• 2) Struggles to state the problem: asks questions,
contemplates existing knowledge, gathers facts, and
moves from an emotional to an intellectual
confrontation with the problem.
• 3) Proposes hypotheses to explain the facts that are
believed to be logically related to the problem.
• 4) Deduces outcomes or consequences of the hypotheses
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Combining deduction and induction
• 5) Formulates several rival hypotheses.
• 6) Devises and conducts a crucial empirical test
with various possible outcomes, each of which
selectively excludes one or more hypotheses.
• 7) Draws a conclusion, an inductive inference,
based on acceptance or rejection of the
hypotheses.
• 8) Feeds information back into the original
problem, modifying it according to the strength
of the evidence.
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Overview of the scientific method
Assessment of relevant existing knowledge
Formulation of concepts and propositions
Statement of hypotheses
Design the research to test the hypotheses
Acquisition of meaningful empirical data
Analysis and evaluation of data
Provide explanation and state new problems
raised by the research
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