Elements of Argument
Including Fallacious Reasoning
Hey, Guys!
Follow me …everyone’s
going…Come On I say, Follow
Me!
Persuasive text attempts to
convince or influence readers!
To persuade means to try to influence
or convince.
 In persuasive writing, the author
attempts to influence readers of
something.
 Persuasion is when the author
expresses an opinion and supports it
with details that are meant to convince
the reader.

Persuasive Text’s Central
Argument
The central argument is the main
opinion that is developed.
 The intention of the argument is to
convince the reader to act or believe
according to the judgment or feeling of
another person/group.

Ever had an argument? What was
your central argument?
Types of Appeals
we can appeal to people 3 ways…



Ethos (Ethics)
Make the audience to decide right or wrong
about what is being presented.
Pathos (Emotion)
Make the audience feel something about the topic
(e.g. children, animals, illness, memories)
Logos (Logic)
Make the audience think about what is presented
(e.g. statistics, facts, authority)
Persuasive Text


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Persuasive texts are less effective is they
contain unsupported inferences.
An inference is a generalization, conclusion,
or reasoned judgment based on evidence or
on information presented.
An unsupported inference is a claim,
generalization, or idea that is not supported
by details in the passage or text.
Persuasive Text - Fallacies
 Persuasive
texts are also less
effective if they contain fallacious
reasoning; fallacious means faulty
or false.
 So, fallacious reasoning is a method
of presenting information that
deceives or confuses the reader.
Types of Logical Fallacies
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)
False Causality
Hasty Generalizations
Either/Or
Oversimplification
False Analogy
Name Calling
Sweeping Generalization
Red Herring (Irrelevant Conclusion)
Circular Reasoning
(a.k.a. Begging the Question)



Circular reasoning is an element of argument
used to prove another element of the same
argument.
It may seem that the author is supporting the
argument, when in fact it is not being supported
by outside detail, but by the argument itself.
Look for the conclusion within the premise of
the argument.

Example:

In a democracy the people are free because
democracies are free countries.
False Causality

A cause and effect argument with a
false cause.

Example:


Every time I forget my umbrella, it rains.
Therefore, I cause the rain by leaving my
umbrella at home, and guarantee a nice day
by bringing my umbrella.
Forgetting my umbrella
rain
Hasty Generalizations

A hasty generalization presents a general rule
based on a too few or atypical examples.
Examples:


I saw 12 boys wearing Vans at the homecoming dance
Saturday night so all boys must wear Vans.
Stereotype is similar, but based on gender,
ethnicity, race, political, social, professional, or
religious group.
Either/Or
Simply implies that there are only two
alternatives.
 Example:



Would you rather have a senator who is
handsome and dumb or one who is ugly and
intelligent?
You are either for or against the law. Decide!
Over Simplification

The author’s argument attempts to
suggest that a complex issue is
uncomplicated.

Example:

I am so tired of hearing about illegal
immigration. Just seal the borders.
False Analogy
An incorrect analogical connection
between two unconnected items thus
comparing two things that are not
logical.
 An argument based on misleading,
superficial, or implausible comparisons.


Example:
 You passed everyone else in the class so I
should receive credit like my fellow classmates.
 If pizza and French fries are fattening and
make me gain weight, I will never eat in the
school cafeteria.
Name Calling

An attempt to discredit an opponent by
labeling or describing him with words
that have emotionally loaded terms or
unfavorable connotations to influence.

Example:

Senator Jones just divorced his wife. How can
his proposal be any good?
Sweeping Generalization



The author applies a rule that’s generally true to
all cases, ignoring the exceptions to that rule to
prove their point.
The reverse of a hasty generalization.
Look for clue words like all, always, never, every,
anything, no one, and none. But be careful! A
hasty generalization can use these words too!
 Examples:
 All birds can fly.
 But mom, everyone failed the test.
 No one cares that there is not enough
parking downtown.
Red Herring (Irrelevant Conclusion)

Is when someone argues for, and often
proves, an irrelevant point – a point that
is not the point of the original assertion.
He dresses up his irrelevant conclusion to
look as if it was relevant.
 Examples:

Grizzly bears can’t be dangerous because
they look so cute.
Let’s Play the Fallacy Game
A fallacy will be presented.
 Use your notes to identify which logical
fallacy is being used
 Write your
answers on your
notes.

1. What Fallacy?
 Learning
to swim is easy because
it’s not a difficult sport to learn.
2. What Fallacy?

“We can either burn the house down
and collect the insurance money or
we can continue living in an unsafe
house. Since we shouldn’t keep
living in an unsafe house, we should
burn it down.”
3. What Fallacy?
 “I
have a right to say what I
want, therefore you shouldn’t try
to silence me.”
4. What Fallacy?
 "My
roommate said her philosophy
class was hard, and the one I'm in
is hard, too. All philosophy classes
must be hard!"
5. What Fallacy?
 "President
Jones raised taxes, and
then the rate of violent crime went
up. Jones is responsible for the rise
in crime."
6. What Fallacy?
 “We
can either go to the river or eat
sandwiches. We’re both hungry, so
we should eat sandwiches and not
go to the river.”
7. What Fallacy?
 "Guns
are like hammers—they're
both tools with metal parts that
could be used to kill someone. And
yet it would be ridiculous to restrict
the purchase of hammers—so
restrictions on purchasing guns are
equally ridiculous."
8. What Fallacy?

"Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It
is a decent, ethical thing to help another
human being escape suffering through
death."
9. What Fallacy?

It is claimed by some people that
severe illness is caused by depression
and anger. After all, people who are
severely ill are very often depressed
and angry. Thus, it follows that the
cause of severe illness actually is the
depression and anger. So, a good and
cheerful attitude is key to staying
healthy.
10. What Fallacy?
 You’ll
definitely get into an Ivy
League school if you’re class
valedictorian. Last year’s class
valedictorian applied to
Stanford and was accepted; this
year’s valedictorian just found
out she got into Harvard.
11. What Fallacy?
 Caldwell
Hall is in bad shape.
Either we tear it down and put up a
new building, or we continue to risk
students' safety. Obviously we
shouldn't risk anyone's safety, so
we must tear the building down.
12. What Fallacy?
 All
Americans are patriotic.
The Final Answer 
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Circular Reasoning
Either/or
Circular Reasoning
Sweeping Generalization
False Causality
Either/Or
False Analogy
Circular Reasoning
False Causality
Hasty Generalization
Either/Or
Sweeping Generalization