NANONETWORKS: A NEW
COMMUNICATION PARADIGM
I. F. AKYILDIZ
Georgia Institute of Technology
BWN (Broadband Wireless Networking) Lab
Atlanta, GA, USA &
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya
N3CAT (Center for NaNoNetworking in Catalunya)
Barcelona, Spain
REFERENCES
I.F. Akyildiz, F. Brunetti, and C. Blazquez,
"NanoNetworking: A New Communication Paradigm",
Computer Networks Journal, (Elsevier), June 2008.
I.F. Akyildiz and J. M. Jornet,
“Electromagnetic Wireless Nanosensor Networks”,
Nano Communication Networks Journal (Elsevier), May 2010.
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Nanotechnology
Study of the control of matter on an atomic
and molecular scale.
– Enabling the miniaturization and fabrication
of devices in a scale ranging from one to a
few hundreds nanometers
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3
Nanotechnology
Diameter of human hair
Typical cell diameter
DNA double-helix diameter
Carbon atoms bond length
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20-200
µm
10 µm
2 nm
0.145 nm
4
4
NANOMATERIALS:
GRAPHENE, NANOTUBES & NANORIBBONS
Graphene: A one-atom-thick planar sheet of bonded carbon
atoms in a honeycomb crystal lattice.
* Carbon Nanotubes (CNT): A folded nano-ribbon (1991)
* Graphene Nanoribbons (GNR): A thin strip of graphene (2004)
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NANOMATERIALS:
GRAPHENE, NANOTUBES & NANORIBBONS
A graphene material sample
used for testing its properties.
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Ten graphene nanoribbons
between a pair of electrodes
Courtesy of the Exploratory Nanoelectronics and
Technology (ENT) Group, School of ECE, GaTech.
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Nanomaterials:
Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes & Nanoribbons
 Their electrical and optical properties, analyzed in light of Quantum
Mechanics, offer:
* High current capacity + High thermal conductivity  Energy efficiency
* Extremely high mechanical strength  Robustness
* Very high sensitivity (all atoms are exposed)  Sensing capabilities
New opportunities for device-technology:
Nano-batteries, nano-memories, nano-processors,
nano-antennas, nano-tx, nano-rx.
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Design of Nano-Devices
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Design of Nano-Machines
Top-Down
Bottom-Up
 Main Challenge:
 Main Challenge:
Achieve molecular
* Controlling the assembly
process
and atomic precision
 Examples:
* Photolithography,
* Micro-contact
printing.
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* Obtaining complex
structures.
 Examples:
* Molecular self-assembly
* Molecular recognition.
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Bio-Hybrid
 Main Challenge:
* Isolation of
biological
nano-machines
* Hybridization.
 Examples:
Bacteria transport
9
DESIGN OF NANO-MACHINES
Nano-Material based
Nano-Machines
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Biologically Inspired
Nano-Machines
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POWER UNIT (NANO-BATTERIES)
 Zinc Oxide Nano Wires
High density nano-wires
used for nano-batteries.
 Improved power density, lifetime, and charge/discharge rates.
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NANO-PROCESSOR
* 45 nm transistor technology is already on the
market
* 32 nm technology is around the corner
* World’s smallest transistor (2008) is based on a
thin strip of graphene just 1 atom x 10 atoms
(1 nm transistor)
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World smallest transistor
Courtesy of Mesoscopic
Physics group at the
University of Manchester.
12
Graphene EM Nano-Transmitter
Modulator
Signal
Generator
Power
Amplifier
Antenna
Information
 Can we develop an EM transmitter in the nano-scale in
light of molecular electronics?
– Yes, we can do that consistently with physics laws!
– It may take us some time !!
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Graphene EM Nano-Receiver
Antenna
LNA
Demodulator
Information
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NANO-MEMORY
Graphene-based micro-scale memories offer high
density storage systems (e.g., 64 Gbits/cm2)
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NANO-ANTENNAS
 Graphene can also be used to build antennas:
– Using a single Carbon Nanotube (or a set of them):
a nano-dipole
– Using a single Graphene Nanoribbon: a nano-patch
– Atom-precise antennas
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A GRAPHENE-BASED NANO-ANTENNA
J. M. Jornet and I.F. Akyildiz,
“Graphene-based Nano-antennas for Electromagnetic Nanocommunications in
the Terahertz Band”,
in Proc. of 4th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation, (EUCAP),
April 2010.
– Propose, model and analyze a novel nano-antenna
design based on a metallic multi-conducting band
Graphene Nanoribbon (GNR) and resembling a nanopatch antenna.
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OUR CONTRIBUTIONS
Developed a quantum mechanical framework to model the
transmission line properties of GrapheneNanoRibbons:
 Contact resistance
 Quantum capacitance
 Kinetic inductance
as a function of different design variables
 Ribbon dimensions
 System temperature
 System energy
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WHAT DID WE LEARN?
Graphene can be used to manufacture nano-antennas with
atomic precision.
Using nano-antennas, EM waves will be radiated
in the Terahertz Band (0.1-10 THz):
 New opportunities for electromagnetic nano-scale communications
 New opportunities for Terahertz technology.
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DESIGN OF NANO-MACHINES
Nano-Material based
Nano- Machines
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Biologically Inspired
Nano-Machines
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINES
I.F. Akyildiz, F. Brunetti, and C. Blazquez,
"NanoNetworking: A New Communication Paradigm",
Computer Networks Journal, (Elsevier), June 2008.
A CELL
The most sophisticated existing
nano-machine:
- Efficient energy consumption +
Harvesting Mechanisms
- Multi-task computing + DNA processing
- Multi-sensing + Actuation
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINES: POWER
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cell gains useful energy.
By combining
–Glucose
–Amino Acids
–Fatty Acids
–Oxygen
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The cell obtains energy which is used to
synthesize Adenosine TriPhosphate or ATP
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HOW ABOUT AN ATP BATTERY?
Mitochondria: a membrane enclosed
organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.
** They generate most of the ATP per
cell.
** Only present in eukaryotic cells.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINE:
PROCESSOR/MEMORY
 Cells pose a good example of multi-tasking processors.
 In each cell, the “instructions” are contained in the
genes, which are portions of DNA.
 Enzymes are bio-molecules that catalyze (trigger) the
expression of a gene -> DNA processors.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINE
PROCESSOR/MEMORY
DNA: A nucleic acid that contains the instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living organisms.
The manipulation of DNA or
Hybridization will allow us to
obtain user-defined biological
Nano-machines
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINE:
TRANSCEIVER: EMISSION PROCESS
A cell (the transmitter) synthesizes and releases in the medium
molecules (proteins), as a result of the expression of a DNA sequence.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINE:
RECEIVER: RECEPTION PROCESS
Another cell (the receiver) captures those molecules and creates an internal
chemical pathway that triggers the expression of other DNA sequences.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINE:
RECEIVER: RECEPTION PROCESS
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINE:
RECEIVER: RECEPTION PROCESS
Receptor-ligand binding:
 A ligand is a substance that is able to
bind to and form a complex with a
bio-molecule to serve a biological
purpose
 A receptor is a protein molecule,
embedded in either the plasma membrane
or the cytoplasm of a cell.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINE:
PHEROMONE ANTENNA
Ll. Parcerisa and I.F. Akyildiz, "Molecular Communication Options for Long
Range Nanonetworks“
,
Computer Networks (Elsevier) Journal, Fall 2009.
Pheromones are bigger
molecules externally released
by plants, insects and other
animals that trigger specific
behaviors among the receptor
members of the same
species.
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NANO-COMMUNICATION PARADIGMS
EM Based Communication
Molecular Communication
for Nano-Material Based
for Biological
Nano-Networks
Nano-Networks
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TERAHERTZ BAND FOR EM BASED NANO-NETWORKS
J.M. Jornet and I.F. Akyildiz,
“Channel Capacity of Electromagnetic Nanonetworks in the
Terahertz Band”, in Proc. of IEEE ICC, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010.
– Developed an Attenuation and Noise model for EM
communications in the Terahertz Band (0.1-10 THz)
– Uniqueness of the Terahertz band:
* Terahertz channel is seriously affected by the
presence of different molecules present in the medium
* High molecular absorption attenuates the travelling
wave and introduces noise into the channel
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PATH-LOSS
Determined by:
– Spreading Loss: accounts for the attenuation due to
the expansion of the wave as it propagates through
the medium.
– Absorption Loss: accounts for the attenuation due to
molecular absorption.
A
f
,
d
d
B

A
f
,
d
d
B

A
f
,
d
d
B












s
p
r
e
a
d
a
b
s
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SPREADING LOSS
 Depends on the frequency of the wave f and the total
path length d:

4
f
d


A
f
,
d

2
0
l
o
g


s
p
r
e
a
d
 
c
A dominant term in the total path loss computation !!
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ABSORPTION LOSS
Molecular composition of the channel:
1
A
fd
, 
a
b
s
fd
,
where τ is the transmittance of the medium and accounts
for the molecular absorption of the channel;
i.e., measures the amount of radiation that is able to pass through the medium.
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION
Using Beer-Lambert law we obtain the transmittance
of the medium τ as:
P

k
fd

fd
, 0
e
P
i
where
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f is the wave frequency
d is the path length
P0 is the output power
Pi isthe input power, and
k is the medium absorption coefficient.
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION
Medium absorption coefficient k depends on the particular
mixture of particles found along the channel:
i
,
g
k
f
k
f



i
,
g
where f is frequency
ki,g is absorption coefficient of each isotopologue i of a gas g.
e.g., Air in an office is mainly composed of
* Nitrogen (78.1%)
* Oxygen (20.9%) and
* Water vapor (0.1-10%).
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION
Absorption coefficient of a specific isotopologue i of a gas g

T
p
,
gi
,
g
S
T
Pi
k
f
Q 
f
p
0T
i
,
g
where
p
s
y
s
te
m
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
p
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
ep
r
e
s
s
u
r
e(
1a
tm
)
0
T
te
m
p
e
r
a
tu
r
e
T
S
ta
n
d
a
r
d
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
eT
e
m
p
e
r
a
tu
r
e(
2
7
3
.1
5K
)
S
T
P
ig
,
Q

m
o
le
c
u
la
rv
o
lu
m
e
tr
icd
e
n
s
ity
ig
,


a
b
s
o
r
p
tio
nc
r
o
s
ss
e
c
tio
n
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION
 For a given gas mixture, the volumetric water density can be
obtained from the ideal gas laws equation as:
n
p
i
,
g
i
,
g
Q

q
N

q
N
A
A
V
R
T
i
,
g
where
nn
u
m
b
e
ro
fm
o
le
so
fag
iv
e
ng
a
s
Vv
o
lu
m
e
i,g
q
m
ix
in
gra
tioo
fais
o
to
p
o
lo
g
u
eio
fg
a
sg
N
A
A
v
o
g
a
d
roC
o
n
s
ta
n
t
Tte
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
R

g
a
sc
o
n
s
ta
n
t
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For example,
with a 10% of
water vapor,
one molecule of
H2O is found
every 1 µm3
39
MOLECULAR ABSORPTION
Absorption cross section can be further decomposed in
* the absorption line intensity Si,g and
* the absorption line shape Gi,g:

f

S
G
f




i
,
g
i
,
g
i
,
g
Si,g depends on the type of molecules.
We obtain this value from the HITRAN database.
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION
The continuum absorption is obtained from Van Vleck-Weisskopf
assymetric line shape

h
c
f
t
a
n
h
2 

 
i
,
g
2
k
T


f
1
1

i
,
g
L

 B
G
f






2
2
2
2
i
,
g
i
,
g
i
,
g
i
,
g
i
,
g
i
,
g 

f

h
c
f
c

ff


ff


c
c
L
c
L
t
a
n
h


 
2
k
T
B











where h is the Planck Constant
c is the speed of light in vacuum
kb ithe Boltzmann constant and
αLi,g is the broadening coefficient.
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NOISE
The total noise at the receiver will be mainly contributed by:
– Electronic noise: predictably low due to large Mean
Free Path of electrons in graphene, more accurate
models are needed.
– Molecular noise: which also appears due to molecular
absorption.
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WHAT DID WE LEARN?
– Terahertz communication channel has a strong dependence on
* the transmission distance
* medium molecular composition.
– Main factor affecting the performance of the Terahertz band
 the presence of water vapor molecules.
– Terahertz frequency band offers incredibly huge bandwidths for
short range (less than 1m) deployed nano-networks
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Total Path Loss
1km
100
1m
50
1mm
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We can
certainly not
go further
Distance
For the
middle range,
there are
several
windows
TENTHS OF
GIGAHERTZ
S WIDE. Can
we exploit
this? Maybe
not nano…
but micro?
Standard Atmosphere (1% H2O)
2
4
6
Frequency [THz]
8
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0
The almost
absence of
molecules in
short
distance does
simplify
everything in
the short
range.
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NUMERICAL RESULTS
2
1m
3
Distance
Distance
4
1m
1
1mm
1mm
MOLECULAR NOISE
TEMPERATURE
2
4
6
8 IN THE TERAHERTZ BAND
2
4
Frequency [THz]
Frequenc
Noise Temperature [k]
Noise Temp
1km
1km
200
150
1m
100
Distance
Distance
250
1m
50
1mm
2
4
6
8
Frequency [THz]
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1mm
2
4
Frequenc
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TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS
Some novel properties:
– Extreme large bandwidths
– The noise in the terahertz band is neither additive
nor white.
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RESEARCH CHALLENGES IN TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS
– Accurate channel models accounting for molecular
absorption, molecular noise, multi-path, etc.
– New communication techniques
(e.g., sub-picosecond or femtosecond long pulses,
multicarrier modulations, MIMO boosted with large
integration of nano-antennas?).
– This band is still not regulated, we can contribute to the
development of future communication standards in THz
band.
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RESEARCH CHALLENGES IN TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS
– New information encoding techniques, definition of new
codes tailored to the channel characteristics (time
varying channel, non white noise).
– Frame and packet size, synchronization issues,
transceivers architectures, etc. need to be defined.
– Network topology issues, network connectivity, network
capacity, how are they affected by the channel?
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RESEARCH CHALLENGES IN TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS
– New MACs exploiting the properties of the THz band
(e.g., collisions among femtosecond pulses may be negligible,
OFDMA may be useful in such big bandwidths).
– New routing protocols and transport layer solutions for reliable
transport in terahertz networks. Cross-layer solutions?
– What are the applications enabled by this huge bandwidth?
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COMMUNICATION PARADIGMS FOR
NANO-NETWORKS
EM Based
Molecular
Communication for
Communication for
Nano-Machines
Nano-Machines
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A Possible Solution: Molecular Communication
Defined as the transmission and reception of
information encoded in molecules
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A new and
interdisciplinary field
that spans nano,
ece, cs, bio,
physics, chemistry,
medicine, and
information
technologies
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Nanonetworks vs Traditional Communication Networks
Traditional
Communication
Molecular
Communication
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Molecular Communication
Molecular
Communication
Short Range
(nm to µm)
Wired
Molecular
Motors
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Long Range
(mm to m)
Medium Range
(µm to mm)
Wireless
Ion
Signaling
(e.g., calcium,
sodium,
potassium,
chlorine)
Wireless
Wired
Wireless
Pheromones
Flagellated
Bacteria
Catalytic
Nanomotors
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Axons
Capillaries
Light
transduction
Pollen/Spores
53
Short-Range Communication
Calcium Ions
(Wireless)
Molecular Motors
(Wired)
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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors
What is a Molecular Motor?
–
Is a protein or a protein complex
that transforms chemical energy
into mechanical work at a
molecular scale
–
Has the ability to move molecules
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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors
Molecular Motors:
* Found in eukaryotic cells in living organisms
* Molecular motors travel or move along molecular
rails called microtubules
* Movement created by molecular motors can be
used to transport information molecules
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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors
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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors
Encapsulation of information:
Information can be encapsulated in vesicles.
A vesicle is a fluid or an air-filled cavity that can store or digest cell products.
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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors
Encoding
Select the
right
molecules
that
represent
information
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Transmission Propagation
Attach the
information
packet to
the
molecular
motor
Microtubules
(molecular rails)
restrict the
movement to
themselves
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Reception
Decoding
Information
molecules
are detached
from
molecular
motors
Receiver nanomachine invokes
the desired
reaction
according to the
received
information
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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling
Two Different Deployment Scenarios
Direct Access
Exchange of information among
cells located next to each
other
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Indirect Access
Cells deployed separately
without any physical contact
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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling
Direct Access: Ca2+signal travel through gates
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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling
– Gap Junctions: Biological gates that allow different molecules and
ions to pass freely between cells (membranes).
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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling
– Indirect Access:


Transmitter nano-machine release information molecules to the the medium.
Generate a Ca2+ at the receiver nano-machine.
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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling
Encoding
Information is
encoded in Ca2+
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Transmission
Involves the
signaling
initiation
Signal
Propagatio
n
Propagation of
the Ca2+
waves
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Reception
Receiver
perceives the
Ca2+
concentration
Decoding
Receiver
nano-machine
reacts to the
Ca2+
concentration
64
Problems of Short Range Molecular Communication
– Molecular Motors:
 Molecular motors velocity is 500 nm/s
 They detach of the microtubule and diffuse away when they
have moved distances in the order of 1 µm
 Development of a proper network infrastructure of microtubules
is required
 Molecular motors move in a unidirectional
way through the
microtubules
 very long communication delays !
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Problems of Short Range Molecular Communication
– Calcium Signaling
 Very high delays for longer (more than few µm) distances
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Medium Range Molecular Communication
M. Gregori and I. F. Akyildiz, "A New NanoNetwork Architecture
using Flagellated Bacteria and Catalytic Nanomotors,"
IEEE JSAC (Journal of Selected Areas in Communications),
May 2010
• Flagellated
bacteria
• Catalytic
nanomotors
• Pheromones
• Pollen & Spores
• Ion Signaling
• Molecular Motors
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Medium Range Molecular Communication:
Flagellated Bacteria
– Bacteria are microorganisms composed only by one prokaryotic cell.
– Flagellum allows them to convert chemical energy into motion.
– Escherichia coli (E. coli) has between 4 and 10 flagella, which are moved by
rotary motors, fuelled by chemical compounds.
– E. coli bacteria is approximately 2 µm long and 1 µm in diameter.
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Medium-Range Communication using
Flagellated Bacteria
– Information is expressed as a set of DNA base pairs, the DNA packet, which is
inserted in a plasmid.
Encoding
Transmission Propagation
DNA packet is
introduced inside the
bacteria’s cytoplasm,
using:
• Bacteria sense gradients of
attractant particles.
– Plasmids
– Bacteriophages
– Bacterial Artificial
Chromosomes (BACs)
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Reception
• They move towards the direction and
finds more attractants (chemotaxis).
• The receiver releases attractants so
the bacteria can reach it.
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Decoding
DNA packet is
extracted from the
plasmid using:
 Restriction
endonucleases
enzymes
69
Why Bacterial Communication?
 Spans medium range to long range (μm to tens of cm)
 No need of infrastructure
– Better than molecular motors
 Reliable transfer of huge amount of information
– Up to 100Kbyte per bacteria (400K base pairs) using a plasmid.
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Objective
Analyze the communications aspects of flagellated
bacteria-based information transport
– Delay and range
And relation with other parameters (receiver size, bacteria
speed, bacteria run period)
How? Simulation!!
– Others: routing, coding
IFA’2010
EURECOM
Why Simulation?
 Bacteria perform BIASED RANDOM WALK
– Moves more or less randomly, but tends to climb concentration
gradients of attractants
 We simulate a bacteria that
– Starts swimming in a random direction
– Starts at given distance from spherical receptor of certain size
 Delay  time to reach the receptor
 Range  maximum distance
IFA’2010
EURECOM
Simulation Model
acterium RUNS or TUMBLES
IFA’2010
EURECOM
Medium Range Molecular Communication:
Catalytic Nanomotors (Nanorods)
– Au/Ni/Au/Ni/Pt striped nanorods are
catalytic nanomotors,
– 1.3 µm long and 400 nm on diameter,
– can be externally directed by applying
magnetic fields.
 We propose to use them as a carrier to transport the DNA
information among nano-sensors
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Medium-Range Communication using Catalytic Nanomotors
– Information is expressed as a set of DNA base pairs, the DNA packet, which is
inserted in a plasmid.
Encoding
Transmission Propagation
• Nanorods are introduced in a solution of
AEDP
• Magnetic Fields guide the
nanorod to the receiver
• AEDP binds with the Nickel segments
Decoding
DNA packet is
extracted from the
plasmid using:
 Restriction
endonucleases
enzymes
• DNA packets (plasmids) are attached to
nanorods
• CaCl2 solution is used in order to
compress and immobilize the plasmid
IFA’2010
Reception
EURECOM
75
Long-Range Communication using Pheromones
L. Parcerisa and I.F. Akyildiz,
"Molecular Communication Options for Long Range Nanonetworks“
Computer Networks (Elsevier) Journal, Fall 2009
,
Features:
Communication
Range
Medium
Carrier
IFA’2010
mm - m
Wet and dry
•
•
Pheromones
Pollen & Spores
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Long-Range Communication using Pheromones
Communication Features:
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Long-Range Communication using Pheromones
Encoding
Selection of the
specific
pheromones to
transmit the
information and
produce the
reaction at the
intended
receiver
IFA’2010
Transmission
Releasing the
pheromones
through
liquids or
gases
Signal
Propagation
Pheremones
are diffused
into the
medium
EURECOM
Reception
Pheremones
bind to the
Receptor
Decoding
Interpretation
of the
information
(Different
pheremones
trigger
different
reactions)
78
Research Challenges in Nano-Networks
Development of
nano-machines,
testbeds and
simulation tools
IFA’2010
Information
Theoretical
Approach
EURECOM
Architectures
and
Communication
Protocols
79
MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODEL
M. Pierobon, and I. F. Akyildiz, ``A Physical Channel Model for
Molecular Communication in Nanonetworks,’’
IEEE JSAC (Journal of Selected Areas in Communications), May 2010.

Molecule Diffusion Communication: Exchange of information
encoded in the concentration variations of molecules.
RN
TN
Emission
process
IFA’2010
Diffusion
process
EURECOM
Reception
process
80
END-TO-END
IFA’2010
EURECOM
OBJECTIVE OF THE PHYSICAL CHANNEL MODEL
Derivation of DELAY and ATTENUATION
as functions of the frequency and the transmission range
Non-linear attenuation with respect to the frequency
 Distortion due to delay dispersion

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MODELING CHALLENGES FOR THE PHYSICAL CHANNEL
 Transmitter


Propagation


How chemical reactions allow the modulation of molecule concentrations as
transmission signals ?
How the “particle diffusion” controls the propagation of modulated
concentrations ?
Receiver

How chemical reactions allow to sense the modulated molecule concentrations
from the environment and translate them into received signals ?
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MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODEL
Transmitter Model



Design of a chemical actuator scheme (chemical
transmitting antenna)
Analytical modeling of the chemical reactions involved in
an actuator
Signal to be transmitted  Modulated concentration
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MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODEL
Propagation Model


Solution of the diffusion physical laws (FICK’s First and Second
Laws (1855)) in the presence of an external concentration
modulation
Modulated concentration  Space-time concentration evolution
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MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODEL
Receiver Model



Design of a chemical receptor scheme (chemical receiving antenna)
Analytical modeling of the chemical reactions involved in a
receptor
Propagated modulated concentration  Received signal
IFA’2010
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FURTHER RESEARCH CHALLENGES
FOR CHANNEL MODEL

Noise

Capacity

Throughput
IFA’2010
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FINAL GOAL OF MOLECULAR
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

Physical Channel Model


Noise Representation


How information is transmitted, propagated and received
when a molecular carrier is used
How can be physically and mathematically expressed the
noise affected information transmitted through molecular
communication
Molecular
Channel
Capacity
Information Encoding/Decoding



Concentration
Chemical structure
Encapsulation
IFA’2010
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88