English II PAP/GT
2014-2015
Year Round Packet—DO NOT THROW AWAY!!
This packet contains handouts needed throughout the course of the year and needs to be kept in your
binder/folders for the ENTIRE YEAR.
Pages
1
Language Registers
What Are Language Registers?
Grammar
Grammar/Usage Reference Guide
Reminders for Written Expression
A Brief Spelling Review: Forms to Remember
2
3-5
6-7
Writing
Pattern Sentences
Basics for the 8/11 Sentence Paragraph
Grading Rubric for Timed Writings
Essay Organization
Persuasive Essay
Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion
Persuasive Rubric
Writing Thematic Statements
Embedded Quotes
Useful Verbs for Writing
Transitions
8-12
13-14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Research:
Online Database Access and EBooks
MLA Bibliography Citations for Research
Ethics in Research
Internal Citation Guidelines
Works Cited Page Guidelines
24
25-28
29
30-31
32
Literature:
DIDLS
Tone Words
Style and Rhetorical Appeals Graphic Organizer and Defintions
SOAPSTone
AP English Language Multiple Choice Question Stems
Three Column Poetry Analysis
Archetypes and Symbols
Recognizing Patterns in Literature
Literary Terms Glossary
33
34
35
36
37-38
39
40-42
43
44-51
0
What Are Language Registers?
Languages have five (5) language registers—five language styles. Both students and teachers need to know
each of the five registers/styles because the appropriate use of language is a matter of situation. The use of the
appropriate register depends on the audience, the topic, and the purpose for the communication (Joos 1967).
Most students write as they speak because they are not familiar with these registers. Teachers must familiarize
themselves with these and teach the registers as an addition to the state framework.
Frozen Register
(Language that remains fixed/unchanged)
Pledge of Allegiance, Lord’s Prayer, Preamble to the Constitution
Formal/Academic Register
Interviews, academic language in classroom (lectures,/instruction), public speaking
Consultative Register (Discussion)
(Asking for assistance)
Talking to a boss, supervisor, teacher, lawyer, doctor, Counselor
Casual (Informal) Register
(Writing drafts should allow casual before the formal draft because it
“gets the information out” on the paper)
Talking with friends, slang
Intimate Register
(NEVER USED IN CLASS!!!—leads to parent calls/referrals to principal/counselor)
Language of intimate relationships, sexual harassment (not for public information)
The Universal Rule: A person can go from one register to the next register without any conflicts whatsoever
(casual or consultative); however, if a person goes from one register to another register, skipping a level or
more, this is considered anti-social behavior (i.e. moving from frozen to intimate, etc. marks a difference
between a public and a private voice.
Students must know how and when to move from one register to the next.
1
Grammar/Usage Reference Guide
This review guide contains information vital to your understanding of grammar and usage. Use this guide as a resource as
you complete writing assignments.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The Eight Parts of Speech
Part of Speech
Noun
General Use
Names person, place, thing, idea
Examples
Jessie raises horses on his ranch in the country.
Hope lifted their spirits during hard times.
Pronoun
Takes the place of a noun
You should speak to no one.
That is mine in the cupboard.
We blame ourselves for it.
Adjective
Modifies a noun/pronoun
Answers the questions: Which one(s)?
What kind(s)? How many? How much?
It’s a beautiful day in the neighborhood.
The sun is very warm.
The tiny, red flowers wilt in the hot sun.
Verb
Shows action OR helps to make a
Statement and/or shows being
He runs and leaps through the air.
She could really be the winner.
They are friends.
Adverb
Modifies a verb, adjective, or another
Adverb. Answers the questions: When?
Where? How? How often? To what extent?
He runs fast?
She walks too slowly.
The pie is very hot.
Preposition
Relates its object (noun or pronoun) to
another word in the sentence
The birds are in the tree in the yard behind the
house.
Conjunction
Joins words, phrases, main/subordinate clauses
Jim and Sara won because they practiced and
tried their best.
Interjection
Expresses mild or strong emotion
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but (meaning
except)
by
concerning
despite
down
during
except
According to
Ahead of
Aside from
Because of
by means of
by way of
in addition to
in case of
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
onto
out
outside
over
Compound Preposition
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
Personal Pronouns
past
since
through
throughout
to
toward
under
underneath
until
unto
up
upon
with
within
without
instead of
on account of
out of
prior to
I, me, my mine
You, your(s)
He, she, it
Her, him, it
Her, his, its
We, us, our(s)
They, them
Their(s)
Myself
Yourself
Himself
Herself
Itself
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves
Indefinite Pronouns
Linking (Be) Verbs
Singular
Anyone
Anybody
Anything
Someone
Somebody
Something
No one
Nobody
Nothing
Everyone
Everybody
Everything
Is, Am, Are
Was, Were
Be, Been, Being
The following could be action or linking depending upon the sentence. Use the
substitution test to be sure.
Appear
Become
Became
Feel
is
being
can
should
am
do
may
would
Grow
Look
Remain
Seem
Smell
Sound
Stay
Taste
Turn
be
had
shall
been
have
could
Common Helping Verbs
are
does
might
was
did
will
were
has
must
2
Either…or
Neither…nor
Both…and
Not (only)…but (also)
Whether…or
Conjunctive Adverbs
; therefore,
; moreover,
; nevertheless,
; however,
; consequently,
; thus,
Good grief!
Yes, I agree with your decision.
Whew! That was a close call!
Prepositions
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
around
as
at
before
behind
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
(FANBOYS)
Plural
Both
Many
Few
Several
Either S or P
All
Some
Any
None
Most
Note: Use a semi-colon before and a
comma after if joining two independent
clauses.
Subordinating Conjunctions
(Introduce Adverb Clauses)
After
Although
As
As if
As much as
Because
Before
Now
If
In order that
In as much as
Provided
Since
So that
Than
Though
That
Till
Unless
Until
When
Whenever
Where
Wherever
Whether
While
Relative Pronouns
(Introduce Adjective & Noun
Clause)
Who
Whose
Whom
Which
What
That
Whoever
Whomever
Whichever
Whatever
(“Where” and “when” are adverbs
that sometimes introduces adjective
clauses.)
Adverb Interrupters
(These frequently interrupt verb
phrases.)
certainly not
often
never
evidently scarcely
hardly
always
frequently
usually
seldom
sometimes
Reminders for Written Expression
 Use present tense verbs when writing about literature:
When Ratchet reaches the end of the trail, he knows he has made a wrong move.
Because Amelia recognizes her mother, she weeps uncontrollably.
 Regarding Titles:
 Title ALL of your papers whether they are daily papers, homework papers, tests, or essays.
 Capitalize the important words of your titles—
Example Title: Character Analysis of Napoleon in Animal Farm
 Do NOT punctuate your original titles with quotation marks and/or underlining.
 Underline novel titles and other major works of literature when written and Italicize when typed
 Place quotation marks around titles of poems, short stories, and other minor works of literature.






Spelling counts on all assignments! Use a dictionary to look up words.
Grammar counts on all assignments!
Do NOT use the words “a lot” or “very” in any of your writing.
Show, don’t tell—use vivid description in your writing!
Do not use slang.
Do not use contractions in your writing. Spell it out (don’t is do not, can’t is cannot)
 Apostrophes are used to show POSSESSION. They are NOT used to show that a noun is plural.
 To all singular nouns, add ‘s.
My father’s look was grim.
 To plural nouns ending in s, just add an ‘ (apostrophe).
All of our fathers’ looks were grim.
 To plural nouns NOT ending in s, add ‘s.
All of the children’s faces wore
looks of concern.
 Use POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS correctly.
The dog chased it’s tail. INCORRECT!!! “It’s” is a contraction for “it is.”
The dog chased its tail. CORRECT!!! “Its” is showing that the tail belongs to the dog.
 Use Personal Pronouns Correctly
1st person—the one(s) speaking
Subject pronouns: (Sing) I—I went to the store. (Plural) we: We went to the store.
Object pronouns: (Sing) me—The boy threw the ball to me. (Plural) us: The boy threw the ball to us.
Possessive pronouns: (Sing) my, mine—This is my life; it is mine. (Plural), our, ours: This is our life; it is
ours.
2nd person—the one(s) spoken to
Subject pronouns: (Sing) you,—You went to the store. (Plural) you-You went to the store.
Object pronouns: (Sing) you—The boy threw the ball to you. (Plural) you -The boy threw the ball to you.
Possessive pronouns: (Sing) your, yours—This is your life; it is yours. (Plural) your, yours This is your
life; it is yours.
3rd person—the one(s) spoken about
Subject pronouns: (Sing) he, she, it—He, she, it went to the store. (Plural) they- They went to the store.
Object pronouns: (Sing) him, her, it—The boy threw the ball to him, her, it. (Plural) them-The boy threw
the ball to them.
Possessive pronouns: (Sing) his, hers, its—This is his, her, its life; it is his, hers, its. (Plural) their, theirsThis is their life; it is theirs.
**In academic writing, avoid the use of 2nd person pronouns, because academic writing never requires you to speak to
the reader.
3
Use Personal Pronouns in Writing to Indicate Type of Narration (Point of View)
1st Person
Personal narratives
Personal letters
2nd Person
Personal letters
Personal emails
3rd person
Academic expository essays
Personal memoirs
Personal anecdotes in academic
writing
Personal texts
Hypothetical examples in
academic writing
Academic persuasive essays
 Reciprocal Pronouns


Reciprocal pronouns are actually phrases: each other and one another. They identify actions or feelings that are
reciprocated (shared).
Possessive Reciprocal Pronouns: The friends went to each other’s games to cheer for each other.
We looked at one another’s old pictures and laughed.
 Active vs. Passive Voice
 Use ACTIVE voice most often: the subject of the sentence performs and action.
Example: Tommy hit the ball over the fence.
 Active voice is more concise, suggests action, and employs strong verbs, making writing
more interesting.

Use PASSIVE voice when who performed the action is unknown, does not matter, or is purposely not
revealed.
Example: The ball was hit over the fence by Tommy.
 In passive voice sentences, the subject does not do anything; therefore the sentence is less
active, less interesting, and less concise.
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD is the verb form used to express a wish, a suggestion, a command, or a
condition that is contrary to fact.
o
o
o
o
o
I wish it were still in use.(it was becomes it were)
The board recommended that the motion be passed immediately.(motion is passed becomes motion be
passed)
She suggests that Mark work full time from Saturday.(Mark works becomes Mark work)
He said it was essential that Johan guard the box.(Johan guards becomes Johan guard)
It is imperative that the game begin at once.(game begins becomes game begin)
 Verbals: Verbals are verbs that act like some other part of speech in a particular sentence.

GERUND
When a verb acts like a noun, it’s called a gerund.
For example: Jogging is good aerobic exercise.

PARTICIPLE
When a verb acts like an adjective, it’s called a participle.
For example: I ordered new jogging shoes.

INFINITIVE When a verb is coupled with the word “to,” it’s called an infinitive.
To jog requires discipline. The word “to” is also defined as the sign of the infinitive: to + a verb (to
swim, to talk, to laugh). Never split your infinitives (to really swim well, to boldly go where no man has
gone, to plainly see, to always talk).
4
 Phrases and Clauses:

A clause is a group of words which has a subject and a verb. (There are two types of clauses: Insubordinate
(independent) and subordinate (dependent).
o Insubordinate (Independent) express a complete thought.
For example:
I have a cold.
You ate the pizza.
Something has to change.
o Subordinate (dependent) do not express a complete thought, although they do have a subject and a
verb.
For examples:
If I have a cold
When you ate the pizza
Because something has to change
The words “if,” “when,” “because” and many others are called subordinate conjunctions, and it is the presence of these
conjunctions before the subject and the verb that cause the clause to be incomplete (subordinate or dependent.)
What are dependent clauses dependent upon? Independent clauses. Why? To complete them.
For examples:
If I have a cold, I take medicine right away.
When you ate the pizza, you were no longer hungry.
Because something has to change, I am going to work harder.

A phrase is just a group of words; it has no subject and no verb. (There are many types of phrases.)
o When they are essential to understanding fully the idea expressed in the main clause, they are called
restrictive.
o When the phrase is not essential to understanding the idea expressed in the main clause, they are called
non-restrictive.
Punctuating Phrases
1. Restrictive (essential) phrases are not set apart from the main clause with commas. (The word
“that” usually signals a restrictive [essential] clause; and, therefore, no commas are needed.)
For example: Restaurants that are dirty should be outlawed.
2. Non-restrictive (non-essential) phrases and clauses are set apart from the main clause with use
of commas.
For example: Laurie, who is my best friend, is a volleyball player.
 Commas are to be used correctly. Absolutely use them to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Separate items in a series
Separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun
Before a coordination conjunction when joining sentences
Set off nonessential clause and participial phrases
Set off an introductory subordinate clause
After introductory words or interjections of mild emotion
After two or more introductory prepositional phrases
8.
9.
10.
11.
Set off appositives and appositive phrases
Set off nouns of direct address
Set off parenthetical expressions
Separate words and numbers in dates and addresses
5
Apples, oranges, and peaches
Tiny, green, contagious-looking spots
We watched, and we cheered.
Biology, which I like best, is cool.
Because I studied, I excelled.
Yes, you may run.
In the evening near my house, little boys hunt
for frogs.
My friend, Adam, always seems happy.
Carmen, answer the phone.
It is, in my opinion, my call.
He moved from 9008 D Street, Katy, TX, on
February 5, 1962.
A Brief Spelling Review: Forms to Remember
Accept, Except
 accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree:
Example: He accepted their praise graciously.
 except = proposition meaning all but, other than:
Example: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.
Affect, Effect
 affect=verb meaning to influence:
Example: Will lack of sleep affect your game?
 effect= noun meaning result or consequence:
Example: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?
 effect= verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish:
Example: Our effectors have effected a major change in university policy.
Advise, Advice
 advise=verb that means to recommend, suggest or counsel:
Example: I advise you to be cautious.
 advice=noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done:
Example: I’d like to ask for your advice on this matter.
Conscious, Conscience
 conscious=adjective meaning awake, perceiving:
Example: Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.
 conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good:
Example: Chris wouldn’t cheat because his conscience wouldn’t let him.
Idea, Ideal
 idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception
formed by generalization:
Example: Jennifer had a brilliant idea – she’d go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!
 ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or
endeavor:
Example: Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.
 ideal=adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best:
Example: Jennifer was an ideal student.
6
Its, It’s
 its = possessive adjective (possessive form of the pronoun it):
Example: The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.
 it’s = contraction for it is or is has (in a verb phrase):
Example: It’s still raining; it’s been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two
words are being shortened into one.
Their, There, They’re



their = possessive noun
Example: They got their books.
there = that place
Example: My house is over there. (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
they’re = contraction for they are:
Example: They’re making dinner.
To, Too, Two
 to = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb:
Example: They went to the lake to swim.
 too = very, also:
Example: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry too.
 two = the number 2:
Example: Two students scored below passing on the exam.
 Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra O (“one too
many”)
We’re, Where, Were
 we’re = contraction for we are:
Example: We’re glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened
into one.)
 where = location:
Example: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
 were = a past tense form of the verb be:
Example: They were walking side by side.
Your, You’re
 your – possessive pronoun:
Example: Your shoes are untied.
 you’re = contraction for you are:
Example: You’re walking around with your shoes untied.
7
The Art of Styling Sentences for 10th Grade
Pattern
Number
9
Definition
Repetition of a Key Term
(The key term is a word
important enough to be
repeated.)
Pattern
S
V
Example
–
or
key term
repeated key
term
,
We live in our individual worlds –
our inner worlds, the worlds of the
mind.
(use dash or comma before repetition)
We all have problems but we can
find a solution, a solution that
works, a solution that is equitable.
11
11A
Interrupting Modifier Between S
and V
(“When a modifier comes
between the subject and the verb,
you may separate it from the
main elements of the sentence
with a pair of commas or a pair
of dashes. For variety, if the
modifier is merely an aside
within the sentence (a kind of
whisper), put parentheses around
it. This modifier can be a single
work, a pair of words, or even a
phrase that provides additional
information, as in the examples
below.”)
A variation:
A Full Sentence (statement or
question or explanation) as an
Interrupting Modifier
S
,
S
S
modifier
–
,
modifier –
V.
V.
(modifier that whispers)
– a full sentence –
S
or
V .
V.
Research on the computer – using
resources such as Wikipedia –
makes writing papers much easier.
The restaurants downtown, whether
Thai, Italian or American, all offer
excellent food.
Narcissus ignored Echo so
completely (how could she? she was
such a lovely nymph!) that she just
faded away.
(a full sentence)
“If you are having trouble with your
conclusion – and this is not an
uncommon occurrence – it may be
because of problems with your essay
itself.”
Alfred Rosa and Paul Eschholz,
Models for Writers.
8
The Art of Styling Sentences for 9th Grade
Pattern
Number
6
7
Definition
An Introductory Series of
Appositives (with a dash and a
summarizing subject)
The key summarizing word
before the subject may be one of
these: such, all, those, this, many,
each, which, what, these,
something, someone. Sometimes
this summary word will be the
subject, but other times it will
merely modify the subject.
An Internal Series of Appositives
or Modifiers (enclosed by a pair
of dashes or parentheses)
Pattern
Twitter, Facebook, email –
which should he use?
Appositive, appositive, appositive – summary
word S V.
S
10A
11
–
–
appositive, appositive, appositive
V.
(
)
or
A variation:
Appositive (single or pair or
series) after a Dash
Interrupting Modifier Between S
and V
(“When a modifier comes
between the subject and the verb,
you may separate it from the main
elements of the sentence with a
pair of commas or a pair of
dashes. For variety, if the
modifier is merely an aside within
the sentence (a kind of whisper),
put parentheses around it. This
modifier can be a single work, a
pair of words, or even a phrase
that provides additional
information, as in the examples
below.”)
Example
or
Mickey Mouse, Magic
Mountain, the Light Parade –
these mean Disneyland to
children.
They learned the qualities of
sportsmanship – cooperation,
practice, and dedication – by
carefully studying their coach’s
example.
The basic writing skills (good
vocabulary, knowledge of
grammar, sense of style) can be
learned by almost everyone.
It has always been my favorite
movie – The Matrix.
S V word – the appositive.
(echoed idea or second naming)
S
S
,
–
S
modifier
,
modifier
–
(modifier that whispers)
V.
V.
V.
A koala spends its whole life in
one environment – eucalyptus
trees.
Research on the computer –
using resources such as
Wikipedia – makes writing
papers much easier.
The restaurants downtown,
whether Thai, Italian or
American, all offer excellent
food.
9
The Art of Styling Sentences for 8th Grade
Pattern
Number
1
7A
8
Definition
Compound Sentence: Semicolon,
no conjunction
(two short, related sentences now
joined)
A Variation: A Single Appositive
or a Pair
(Use two dashes or parentheses or
commas to enclose this
appositive)
Dependent Clauses in a Pair or in
a Series (at beginning or end of
sentence)
Pattern
_S
V_; _S__V__.
-----or
or
__S__( appositive ) __V____.
If …, if…, if…, then __S___V__.
When…, when…, when…, _S_V_.
__S___V___ that…, that…, that… .
( omit the third clause and have just two, if
you wish)
10
11
14
Emphatic Appositive at end, after
colon
Interrupting Modifier Between S
and V
Prepositional Phrase Before S and
V
_S___V__word: the appositive ( the second
naming)
( with or without modifiers)
_S_, modifier, _V__.
_S__--- modifier --- _V__ .
_S_ (modifier that whispers) __V__ .
Prepositional phrase_S__V_(or_V__S_).
Example
“It made no sense to anyone; it
was just style.”
The sudden burst of light-- a
camera flash—startled me.
If your clothes are made of
cotton, if you wash them with
soap, if you hang them on the
line, you may not need a fabric
softener.
Whether you use a Mac or
whether you use a PC, you can
play great games on a
computer.
When I go to the movies, I need
two things to really enjoy it:
popcorn and a soda.
Typewriters, once common in
schools and offices, are rarely
seen or used now.
The hunter (a common sight in
New Hampshire woods during
winter) carried a large caliber
rifle.
With horrified attention, we
watched the planes crash into
the World Trade Center.
During the long winter months,
Tom toiled as a trapper.
10
The Art of Styling Sentences for 7th Grade
Pattern
Number
1
1A
Definition
Compound Sentence: Semicolon,
no conjunction
(two short, related sentences now
joined)
The first variation to Pattern 1 –
uses a conjunctive adverb
(connector)
Pattern
_S
V_; _S__V__.
Example
Reading is the easy part;
remembering takes more effort.
S V; however, S V.
The car looks as if it has been
wrecked; therefore it’s not a
good buy.
General Statement( idea): Specific statement
( example)
A lizard never worries about
losing its tail: It can always
grow another.
You still need a semi-colon
before the connector, but a
comma after the connector is
optional.
3
5
11
14
17
Compound Sentence with
Explanatory statement
( clauses separated by a colon)
A Series of Balanced Pairs ( note
the rhythm)
Interrupting Modifier Between S
and V
Prepositional Phrase Before S and
V
Dependent Clause (in a “sentence
slot”) As Subject or Object or
Complement
A and B, C and D, E and F.
( may be in any slot in the sentence)
_S_, modifier, _V__.
_S__--- modifier --- _V__ .
_S_ (modifier that whispers) __V__ .
Prepositional phrase_S__V_(or_V__S_).
S_[ dependent clause as subject] __V___.
S V [dependent clause as objects or
complement].
11
Eager yet fearful, confident but
somewhat suspicious, Jason
eyed the barber who would give
him his first haircut.
Typewriters, once common in
schools and offices, are rarely
seen or used now.
With horrified attention, we
watched the planes crash into
the World Trade Center.
[Why so many people hate to
eat vegetables] constantly
amazes parents and
nutritionists.
( subject of amazes)
The Art of Styling Sentences for 6th Grade
Pattern
Number
1
1A
1B
1C
4
4A
Definition
Compound Sentence: Semicolon,
no conjunction
(two short, related sentences now
joined)
The first variation to Pattern 1 –
uses a conjunctive adverb
(connector)
You still need a semi-colon
before the connector, but a
comma after the connector is
optional.
The second variation to Pattern 1use one of the coordinating
conjunctions
Third variation to Pattern 1- use
two or more semicolons to
connect three or more complete
sentences
A Series Without a Conjunction
( a series in any place in the
sentence)
Pattern
_S
V_; _S__V__.
S V; however, S V.
S V; S V, and S V.
S V, but S V; S V
__S__V__; _S___V__; _S___V.
__A,____B,____C____.
A Series With a Variation
_A_or_B or _C___.
_A__and__B__and_C__.
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Prepositional Phrase Before S and
V
Prepositional phrase_S__V_(or_V__S_).
12
Example
Hard work is only one side of
the equation; talent is the other.
The car looks as if it has been
wrecked; therefore it’s not a
good buy.
I didn’t do it; John said he
didn’t do it, but the vase was
certainly broken.
John got an A; Jennie also got
an A; unfortunately George got
a C.
The United States has a
government of the people, by
the people, for the people.
Many ice hockey games lead to
broken ribs or sprained knees or
dislocated shoulders- or even
worse.
With horrified attention, we
watched the planes crash into
the World Trade Center.
Basics for the 8 or 11 Sentence Paragraph
Writing the Mini – Essay: A mini-essay is a simple body paragraph of 8 or 11 sentences composed and
arranged in the following order:











Sentence 1 – Thesis (Topic) Sentence
Sentence 2 – Concrete detail (example to prove/support #1)
Sentence 3 – Commentary (explains or analyzes CD)
Sentence 4 – Commentary (explains why/how the detail proves or clarifies the thesis)
8 sentence=
Sentence 5 – Concrete detail (gives a second example to prove/support #1)
TS + 2 chunks + CC
Sentence 6 – Commentary (explains or analyzes CD)
Sentence 7 – Commentary (explains why/how #5 relates to #1)
Sentence 8 – Concrete detail (gives a third example to prove/support # 1)
11 sentence=
TS + 3 chunks + CC
Sentence 9 – Commentary (explains or analyzes CD)
Sentence 10 – Commentary (explains why/how #8 relates to #1)
Sentence 11 – Closing Commentary (summarizes paragraph, restates topic or thesis sentence, and does
not introduce new information.)
Part Three: Converting to a Multi – Paragraph Essay
Keep in mind:



The thesis statement for a multi-paragraph essay is generally more complicated than for a mini – essay
or a body paragraph.
It will have either a compound subject or predicate or be a compound or complex sentence.
It will need support from the two body paragraphs.
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A multi-paragraph essay is constructed according to the following pattern:



Paragraph 1: Introduction: should consist of at least 40
words and 4 sentences and move in a "funnel" progression from
general to specific ideas. The first sentence arouses the reader’s
attention and interest, while the fourth and final sentence is
usually the thesis. The paragraph is entirely commentary.
Paragraphs 2 and 3: Body or Support paragraphs: should
follow the 8 or 11 sentence format and include transitions
connecting the main ideas. The topic sentences should refer
directly to the thesis. These paragraphs should have a minimum
of 100 – 120 words.
Paragraph 4: Conclusion: should consist of at least 40 words
and 3 or 4 sentences. The conclusion should rephrase the thesis
and close the argument. The paragraph is entirely commentary.
Introduction:
Introduction: General
General (grabber
to specific
sentence
(thesis
and background)
or position
to statement)
specific (thesis or
position statement)
Body: Topic sentence with concrete details
and commentary ending with a transition or
concluding sentence
Body: Topic sentence with concrete details
and commentary ending with a transition or
concluding sentence
Conclusion: Restate the thesis or position
statement (specific) and close the
argument (general).
You need to know the following terms:
1. Thesis Statement (TS) – a statement having a subject and an opinion. The possibility of disagreement is
always present. Possible synonyms include argument, claim, assertion or main idea. The thesis must be
proved by reasons, not by emotions, in order to be proved valid. The thesis statement is the first
statement (sometimes called a topic sentence) in a mini – essay, and usually the fourth statement in the
introductory paragraph of the multi-paragraph essays.
Example:
In Sophocles’ Antigone, the main character (Antigone) shows defiance of King Creon’s order in
the beginning of the play, but when faced with death, she accepts her fate.
2. Concrete Detail (CD) – facts and examples that support the thesis or topic sentence. They include direct
quotations from and summaries or paraphrases of literary texts. These must be documented unless they
are in the public domain or are common knowledge. They are another author’s thoughts and words, not
the student essayist’s.
Example:
In the Prologue, Antigone clearly plans on “burying the brother I [Antigone] love” even though it
means “doing what he [King Creon] has forbidden” (ll. 25-28).
3. Commentary (CM) – the student essayist’s opinions and insights, not concrete detail. Other synonyms
include development, elaboration and explication of the concrete detail.
Example:
King Creon’s law is secondary to Antigone’s loyalty to family and to religion. She defies the
royal edict because her loyalty is not for King Creon but for Polyneices and the gods.
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4. Closing Commentary (C) – the "clincher" at the close of a paragraph or mini essay. It also rephrases
the thesis statement and provides a sense of completion to the paragraph.
Example:
Antigone’s early defiance leads to her death sentence, but she recognizes that her actions have
consequences so she willingly accepts her fate even though she knows in her heart that she has
done the right thing.
5. Chunk – a cluster of CD/CM/CM sentences in a paragraph.
Example:
In Sophocles’ Antigone, the main character (Antigone) shows defiance of King Creon’s order in
the beginning of the play, but when faced with death, she accepts her fate. In the Prologue,
Antigone clearly plans on “burying the brother I [Antigone] love” even though it means “doing
what he [King Creon] has forbidden” (ll. 25-28). King Creon’s law is secondary to Antigone’s
loyalty to family and to religion. She defies the royal edict because her loyalty is not for King
Creon but for Polyneices and the gods. Antigone’s early defiance leads to her death sentence,
but she recognizes that her actions have consequences so she willingly accepts her fate even
though she knows in her heart that she has done the right thing.
Grading Rubric for Timed Writings
**This rubric will be used for grading your timed writings. When writing expository and persuasive essays, expository
rubric and persuasive rubric will be used.
9 (Outstanding) 100
The outstanding essay suggests deep understanding of the text, as seen in an original, interesting, or mature thesis,
explained with insightful commentary (CM); apt and vivid diction and/or syntax; and direct or subtle use of the text (CD)
to support thesis. This essay will have few, but perhaps some, mechanical errors.
7-8 (Very Good) 8=95; 7=90
Essay responds to the assignment clearly and directly with good development, characterized by appropriate details (CD)
from the text to support thesis and some depth of analysis (CM), writer uses appropriate diction and a variety of sentence
structures. Essay is notable for its consistent use of conventional English grammar, punctuation and spelling, but is not
necessarily free from errors. A “7” is better written than a “6.”
5-6 (Good/Adequate) 6=85; 5=80
Essay addresses the assigned question, but does not answer it fully and/or specifically. A general grasp of the text is
obvious from sparse or overuse of textual references (CD) to support thesis without enough clear support for their points;
commentary (CM) may be essentially paraphrase. The writer’s style is characterized by adequate clarity and organization,
but may be mechanical, dull, or excessively wordy.
3-4 (Inadequate) 4 = 75; 3 = 70
Essay fails in some important way to fulfill the assignment. It may omit some part of the prompt (thesis), fail to provide
minimal textual support (CD) for its points, or base its analysis (CM) on a misreading of some part of the text. Essay may
be incomplete, awkward, insufficient, or illogical. Nevertheless, these essays normally present one or more incisive
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points among others of less value. The writing may be similarly uneven in development, with lapses in clarity,
organization, diction, and/or mechanics.
1 – 2 (Poor); 2 = 65; 1= 60; 0=50 or below
Essay commonly combines two or more serious failures: it may not address the actual prompt (thesis); it may indicate
serious misreading of the text; it may not use textual support (CD) [or may use it in a way that suggests failure to
understand the text (CM)]; it may be unclear, badly written or unacceptably brief. The writing style of these papers is
usually marked by egregious errors or by abruptness that suggests the student did not finish, but some may be smoothly
written, though devoid of content.
Turnitin.com (due before 11:59): essays must be submitted before it is graded; if it isn’t submitted on time points will be
deducted.
Grade:__________________ (test grade)
Essay Organization
Essays can explain how something works, how to do something, the steps in a procedure, or why something is
the way it is. There are various ways essays can be organized depending on the parameters of the assignment or
task at hand. Ultimately, the reader should have a better understanding of the subject after reading your paper.
Cause and Effect
Explains and gives reasons. Informs the reader about
results.
Transitions: Since, Because, As a result, Therefore,
So, So that, If, Assuming
Sentence Frames: One of the reasons for…Equally
important…Most significant…
Rhetorical Choices: Rhetorical Question, Repetition,
Chronological Order, Emphatic Order*
*most important last
Compare and/or Contrast
Explains and presents similarities and differences
centered on a few key points.
Transitions:
Same—
Similarly, Likewise, In
the same way, Compared
to, so, too, In like
Problem/Solution
States the details of a problem with facts from experts
and/or personal experience. Offers possible solutions
to the problem and presents a judgment of which has
the best chance of succeeding.
Transitions: Until, Ultimately, Finally, In addition,
Consequently, Next, Soon, In this situation
Sentence Frames: Some might object
to…Nevertheless…Research shows…However, it is
not true that…Many might argue that…
Rhetorical Choices: Rhetorical Question, Allusion,
Analogy, Emphatic Order
Examples Use with all Patterns
To give writing more credibility and depth—
Examples include facts, anecdotes, statistics, details,
opinions, observations.
Personal: happened to you
Typical: happened to someone else or you read, saw,
or heard about it
Different—
On the other hand,
However, Despite,
Unlike, Conversely, but
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matter, Just as
Rhetorical Choices: Similes, Metaphors, Emphatic
Order, Parallelism
Block Method: One-side-at-a-time---all about A,
then all about B
Point by Point: Alternate between subjects—
statement about A & B, second statement about A & B
Divide/Classify
Explains how items or ideas might be organized.
Places them in specific classes based on specific points
of comparison.
Transitions: For example, One such, Another,
Particularly, Especially, To name a few, To name one
Rhetorical Choices: Rhetorical Questions, Emphatic
Order, Parallelism
**Use with other patterns to help organize
information.
Hypothetical: made up (no oddball ones)
Generalization: generally accepted by many
Transitions: For example, Suppose that, Let’s
assume, First, Next, Finally, At first, In the beginning
Rhetorical Choices: Chronological Order, Sensory
Imagery, Concrete Details, 1st person pronoun
Definition
More than a “dictionary” definition, but you can begin
there. Extend the definition to analyze a topic that
may be vague or controversial.
Use Examples to present a personal analysis of the
term or topic.
Rhetorical Choices: Show, don’t tell; Sensory
Details, Examples
**Consult a dictionary to deepen responses.
Persuasive Essay
Definition: A persuasive essay allows the writer to take a position FOR or AGAINST an issue and write to
convince the reader/audience to BELIEVE or DO something in response.
Persuasive writing, also known as the argument essay, uses logic and reason to show that one idea is more
legitimate than another idea. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a
particular action. The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid evidence by stating facts, giving
logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts.
When planning a persuasive essay, follow these steps:
1. Choose your position. Which side of the issue or problem are you going to write about, and what
solution will you offer? Know the purpose of your essay.
2. Analyze your audience. Decide if your audience agrees with you, is neutral or disagrees with your
position. Remember, your audience can be response to an exam, response to a teacher, or response to
peers.
3. Research your topic. A persuasive essay must provide specific and convincing evidence. Often it is
necessary to go beyond your own knowledge and experience. When time allows, you might need to go
to the library or interview people who are experts on your topic. Another way to be prepared to write on
a topic is be well-informed on current events and issues. Pay attention in your other classes and pay
attention to news, especially world and current events, because what you learn there is also relevant to
various topics in English class.
4. Structure your essay. Figure out what evidence you will include and in what order you will present the
evidence. Remember to consider your purpose, your audience, and your topic.
17
The following criteria are essential to produce an effective argument:




Be well informed about your topic. To add to your knowledge of a topic, read thoroughly about it,
using legitimate sources. Take notes.
Test your thesis. Your thesis, i.e., argument, must have two sides. It must be debatable. If you can
write down a thesis statement directly opposing your own, you will ensure that your own argument is
debatable.
Disprove the opposing argument. Understand the opposite viewpoint of your position; conceding a
legitimate point the other side as is seen as ethical, but one must then counter it, showing that although it
has some merit, it isn’t sufficient to support the other sides’ position. Counter it by providing contrasting
evidence or by finding mistakes and inconsistencies in the logic of the opposing argument; this strategy
is often called concession and counterargument.
Support your position with evidence. Remember that your evidence must appeal to reason (LOGOS),
appeal to ethics/morals (ETHOS), and appeal to the emotions (PATHOS) of the audience.
Rhetorical Strategies of Persuasion
Rhetoric is language that effectively accomplishes its purpose. In persuasion, that purpose is to convince the
audience that the writer’s opinion/position is the correct one.
The best arguments rely on using three rhetorical strategies: logical, ethical, and emotional appeal. *Do not rely
too heavily on one appeal over another. Strive for a balance of all three.
Logical Appeal – Logos
Logos uses reasoning and evidence to appeal to an audience or a listener, and is often more intellectual than
emotional. It uses inductive (specific to general) and deductive (general to specific) reasoning.
Some indicators of Logical Appeal
 It uses concessions which express concern for the feelings of those who may disagree, such as phrases:
admittedly, even though, you have a good point…but, perhaps, yes…but
 Facts as evidence
 Research
 Tradition
 Authorities
 Cause/effect
 Analogies
 Metaphors
Emotional Appeal – Pathos
Passion, not logic, stirs most people into taking a stance. When writers and speakers attempt to evoke the
audience’s emotions, they use pathos, which in Greek, loosely translates to “pain.”
Pathos is an appeal to our basic human needs; the writer/speaker uses a friendlier, more relaxed tone.
18
Physical – life and health of the body
Psychological – a person’s inner life, the need for love and self-respect
Social – the need for freedom, status, power, and acceptance
The emotional appeal can be quite effective when words are chosen carefully for connotation (example:
“house” vs. “home” and “childish” vs. “child-like”).
Ethical Appeal – Ethos
Ethos in Greek loosely translates into “character.” Thus, writers/speakers argue in ways that reveal good
character. Here, the writer/speaker must present themselves as fair, just, and trustworthy.
Some indications of Ethos:
 The person is presenting themselves as reliable and good
 The person tries to find a fair middle ground with the audience
 Uses terms such as “perhaps” “some” and “many”
 Restates the opposing view accurately and fairly
 Associates self with authorities
 Makes relevant allusions
 Uses “we” and “us” to establish a rapport
Student-Friendly English II Persuasive Essay Rubric
Development of Ideas
Organization/Progression
Score Point 4Accomplished
Score Point 3Satisfactory
Score Point 2-Basic
 The organizing structure
is clearly appropriate.
 The writer establishes a
clear position.
 All ideas relate to the
position.
 Progression of ideas is
logical and well
controlled.
 Meaningful transitions
and sentence-to-sentence
connections contribute to
the flow of the essay.
 The organizing structure
is mostly appropriate.
 The writer establishes a
clear position.
 The majority of
information focuses on
the position.
 Progression of ideas is
mostly logical and
controlled.
 Meaningful transitions
and sentence-to-sentence
connections support flow.
 The development of ideas
is highly effective.
 The essay is thoughtful
and engaging.
 Evidence to support the
position is specific and
well chosen.
 The argument is forceful
and convincing.
 Writer may choose to
recognize complexities of
issue and/or opposing
viewpoints
(counterargument).
 The development of ideas
is sufficient.
 The essay reflects some
thoughtfulness.
 Evidence to support the
position is specific and
appropriate.
 The argument is largely
convincing.
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 The organizing structure
is evident but may not be
appropriate.
 The writer’s position is
weak or somewhat
unclear.
 Unrelated information
used due to unfocused
position.
 Progression of ideas is
not always logical and
controlled.
 Some writing problems
are due to repetition,
wordiness, and lack of
transitions.
 The development of ideas
is minimal.
 The essay reflects
little/no thoughtfulness.
 Evidence is too brief or
not appropriate.
 The argument is shallow
and largely unconvincing.
Score Point 1-Very
Limited
 The organizing structure
is inappropriate.
 The writer’s position is
missing, unclear, or
illogical.
 Progression of ideas is
weak (too much extra
information and abrupt
shifts).
 Bad essay flow due to
repetition, wordiness, and
lack of sentence-tosentence connections
(transitions).
 The development of ideas
is weak.
 The evidence and reasons
used in the essay are
vague and confused.
 The argument is
unconvincing.
Use of Language/Conventions
 Word choice is
purposeful and precise.
 Tone is appropriate to the
persuasive task and
conveyed by keen word
choice.
 Sentences are purposeful,
varied, and well
controlled and enhance
the effectiveness of the
essay.
 Consistent command of
language and conventions
contribute to the essay’s
effectiveness.
 Minor errors do not
detract from the essay.
 Word choice is mostly
clear and specific.
 Tone is appropriate to the
persuasive task.
 Sentences are reasonably
varied and controlled and
contribute to the
effectiveness of the essay.
 Adequate command of
language and conventions
(sentence boundaries,
spelling, capitalization,
punctuation, grammar).
 Minor errors exist but do
not disrupt essay flow.
 Word choice is general or
imprecise.
 Tone is not appropriate to
the persuasive task.
 Sentences are awkward or
somewhat controlled, but
weaken the effectiveness
of the essay.
 Partial command of
conventions (sentence
boundaries, spelling,
capitalization,
punctuation, grammar).
 Word choice is vague and
limited.
 Tone is missing.
 Sentences are simplistic
or awkward and
significantly limit the
effectiveness of the essay.
 Little or no command of
conventions (sentence
boundaries, spelling,
capitalization,
punctuation, grammar).
Writing Thematic Statements
“Theme is the central message of a literary work. It is not the same as a subject, which can be expressed in
a word or two: courage, survival, war, pride, etc. The theme is the idea the author wishes to convey about
that subject. It is expressed as a sentence or general statement about life or human nature. A literary work
can have more than one theme, and most themes are not directly stated but are implied. The reader must
think about all the elements of the work and use them to make inferences, or reasonable guesses, as to
which themes seem to be implied.” (from Laying the Foundation series of books published by AP
Strategies in Dallas)
For example, if love is a topic/subject of two novels, a major theme in one of the novels could be “Love, if
taken to extremes, can be negative rather than positive,” while in the other novel, the theme might be “Love
can conquer even the greatest evil.” Notice that the topic/subject is the same, but the messages about that
topic/subject are different in different works.
A theme is a meaning of a work. (Yes, there can be more than one “meaning.”) Can the meaning of a work
be love? hate? greed? No—that makes no sense! Those are just topics, not themes. The theme is the
statement an author is making about a topic.
Stating the theme of a work of literature

Begin by using several abstract words to state the principal ideas of the work (topics that the piece is
really about). Abstract words describe concepts or ideas that exist only in our minds like alienation,
prejudice, ambition, freedom, love, loyalty, passion, etc.

Combine those abstract ideas with comments that reflect the author’s observations about human nature,
the human condition, or human motivation. In other words, what is the author saying about the abstract
idea? Is he/she, for example, saying something about the qualities of people and/or commenting on society?
Avoiding the common mistakes in writing a thematic statement

A theme is NOT a moral, a directive, or an order. A moral/directive/order tells us how to behave or what
to do. A theme observes, weighs, and considers actions and ideas, but it avoids judging what people should
20
or should not do; therefore, words like “should” and “ought” are not appropriate in a thematic statement.
Also not appropriate is an order/directive such as “Be nice to elderly people” or “Love like there’s no
tomorrow.”

Themes are NOT trite sayings (clichés, maxims, or aphorisms) such as “Actions speak louder than
words,” “Love hurts,” or “Absence makes the heart grow fonder.”

Themes do NOT refer to the specific names or events of a particular literary piece. A theme does not
summarize a work, but it does reflect what happens in the work. A theme drops character names and uses
more general terms like “parents,” “leaders,” “society,” or “young people” in a general observation about
the human experience.

Themes avoid absolute terms such as “all,” “none,” “everything,” or “always” because they indicate
sloppy thinking; they are categorical, no exceptions. Terms like “we,” “sometimes,” or “often” suggest a
more realistic view of the variety of human experiences.
Embedded Quotes
Sentences that contain commentary and “setting up” of a quote, and/or textual quotes –all in one sentence. This
is the way the AP exam wants you to quote: multiple small phrases embedded into your own sentences.
Examples:
 Atticus explains to Scout after her fight with Cecil Jacobs that she should keep “her fists down” and try
fighting “with her head for a change” (Lee 45).

Mr. Dolphus Raymond comments on how lonely mixed children are because “they do not belong
anywhere” and “colored folks won’t have anything to do with them either” (Lee 78).

Ironically, Mrs. Merriweather says that in Germany “people are hypocrites,” and she announces that “at
least we don’t have the sin of prejudice on our shoulders here in the South” (Lee 167).
Sharon suffers not only from grief, but also remorse as she reveals the knowledge that she “should have
taken him to the hospital.”
The “inexperienced and complacent” doctor estimates that Finny’s leg is sure to recover from the
“simple fracture”
“His room was as black as pitch with the thick darkness” is a passage containing sensory details that Poe
uses to create a feeling of terror (Poe 27).




Edgar Allan Poe uses comparisons such as “old man’s heart” and the “sound such as a watch makes
when enveloped in cotton” for his scary description.

In “The Tell-Tale Heart,” Poe immediately established the narrator as troubled when the narrator says he
is “nervous—very, very nervous” (Poe 27).
21

The main character, Jackson Lee, toured the Jewish “heart-wrenching” concentration camp and
expressed his concern about seeing “unimaginable suffering” (Dawkins 23).
Additional Notes:
1. If you use the word “that” before your quote, then you do NOT use a comma before the quote.
Example: Jerry Seinfeld once explained that there are “two levels of comedy: make your friends laugh
and make strangers laugh.
2. If you use words such as “states, explains, demonstrates, illustrates, cries, yells” before your quote, (and
do NOT use the word “that”) then you MUST use a comma.
Example: Nora realizes the truth when she states, “I must stand quite alone now.”
Useful Verbs for Writing
Accepts
Acts
Affirms
Alludes to
Alters
Appears
Associates
Becomes
Begins
Belongs
Changes
Clarifies
Compares
Compels
Considers
Continues
Contains
Contrasts
Conveys
Demonstrates
Denotes
Depicts
Develops
Embodies
Embraces
Emerges
Employs
Engages
Establishes
Evokes
Exalts
Exemplifies
Exhibits
Exposes
Expresses
Faces
Focuses
Forces
Gains
Grows
Illustrates
Implies
Indicates
Inspires
Intersects
Introduces
Justifies
Knows
Leads
Looks
Maintains
Means
Multiplies
Needs
Occurs
Parallels
Presents
Proves
Reflects
Reinforces
Relates
Remains
Reminds
Represents
Resembles
Responds
Restates
Reveals
Seems
Serves
Stresses
Shows
Solidifies
Suggests
Supports
Strengthens
Stresses
Structures
Sustains
Traces
Transfers
Tries
Underscores
Unites
Verbs to Use in AP Writing
Asserts
Conjures up
Describes
Differentiates
Explains
Explores
Masters
Paints
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Shifts
Stirs
Connotes
Constrain
Construe
Creates
Delineates
Dispels
Elicits
Elucidates
Enhances
Enunciates
Hints at
Ignites
Invokes
Juxtaposes
Manipulates
Portrays
Produces
Prone to
Refutes
Repudiates
Suggests
Tackles
Transcends
Twists
Hints for what to do in a formal paper:
1. Use ACTION verbs. Eliminate BE verbs when possible (NO PASSIVE VOICE)
2. Incorporate descriptive details in your essay
3. Support your assertions with specific examples from the text and life
4. Utilize figures of speech, including similes, metaphors, personification, and imagery
5. Add interesting adverbs and adjectives
6. Write and revise multiple drafts of your essay
7. Use proper capitalization and punctuation
8. Indent paragraphs
9. ANALYZE-not summarize!!!!
10. Incorporate interesting quotes without sound choppy (Remember: NO FQs!!!)
Transitions in your writing:
From - http://www.studygs.net/wrtstr6.htm
If you wish to be a writer, write.
Epictetus, Roman, 50-120
Similarity:
comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly,
identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together
with
Using transitional words and phrases helps papers
read more smoothly. They provide logical organization
and understandability and improve the connections and
transitions between thoughts.
Exception:
aside from, barring, besides, except, excepting,
excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of,
save
A coherent paper allows the reader to flow from the
first supporting point to the last.
Restatement:
in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is
to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently
Transitions indicate relations, whether within a
sentence, paragraph, or paper. This list illustrates
"relationships" between ideas, followed by words and
phrases that can connect them.
Contrast and Comparison:
contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead,
likewise, on one hand, on the other hand, on the
contrary, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still,
nevertheless, in contrast
______________________________________
Addition:
also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with,
furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly
Consequence:
accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason,
23
Sequence:
at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place,
at the same time, for now, for the time being, the
next step, in time, in turn, later on,
meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later,
for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so then,
subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore
while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in
conclusion, with this in mind,
Generalizing:
as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally
speaking, ordinarily, usually
Summarizing:
after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by
and large, in any case, in any event,
in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in
summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, on
balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally
Exemplifying:
chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly,
namely, particularly, including, specifically, such as
Illustration:
for example, for instance, for one thing, as an
illustration, illustrated with, as an example, in this case
Emphasis
above all, chiefly, with attention to, especially,
particularly, singularly
Diversion:
by the way, incidentally
Direction:
here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite,
under, above, to the left, to the right, in the
distance
On-line Database Access & EBooks
One URL will bring you to the KISD home page, which will allow you access to the databases: ****
http://www.katyisd.org click on “students”, then “library resources”, then click on “High school libraries” or under
my favorites (on campus) choose high school resources.
Passwords are not usually needed on campus.
Home Use and occasionally at THS: Use the same URL and the following passwords when prompted. All
user name and passwords are katyisd and katyisd.




ABC-CLIO: World (geography), Modern History, American History, Ancient History & Government.
Britannica Online: Available in English and Spanish
Culturegrams
Galegroup: General OneFile, Student resource center-Junior Infotrac Newstand, Literature
Resources, Biography, U. S History, World History, Kids Infobits, Literature Resource Center,
Opposing Viewpoints, Science, Student Resources, Litfinder.


Maps 101
SIRS (Social Issues Resources Series): Decades, Discoverer, Researcher, Government Reporter,
Renaissance, WebSelect.
World Book

 Included on the database page is Big 6, MLA citation, Turn it in, Kuder Career Planning
(passwords are in the counselor’s office), Texas Handbook Online and UIL.

(e Book) http://literature.salempress.com. Click Remote access. Password: jetmustang
24



(e Book) http://health.salempress.com. Click Remote access. Password: jetmustang.
(e Book) http://history.salempress.com. Click Remote access. Password: jetmustang.
(e Book) http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/tlc049142743. Password: mustang.
Destiny Catalog (for materials in the library): https://library.katyisd.org
On the database page the icon states library catalog. Logging in is not necessary, but when a person logs in, they have
access to Destiny Quest and can view his/her own checkouts. If you login from home, do not use District User. He/She
is also able to create, save, and edit his/her own resources lists and create a citation page from resources they used.
Additional ebooks are located in Destiny; many of the above ebooks are cross-referenced in and are accessible when
he/she log in to Destiny.
MLA Bibliography Citations for Research
Notes on MLA Format





Entries on your “Works Cited” page should be in alphabetical order and double-spaced.
Make sure that all entries have proper indentation— i.e. the second and following line(s) for any entry should be indented .
If you cannot find an author’s name, skip it and go on to the next part of the citation.
Use the following abbreviations as appropriate for online sources: n. pag. (no page numbers); n.p. (no publisher or site
sponsor indicated); n.d. (no date of publication).
Capitalize each word in the title, but do not capitalize short words like articles or prepositions unless one is the first word of
the title or subtitle (ex. The Art of War, Gone with the Wind).
Book by One Author
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. Book Title. City Published: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex: Crompton, Samuel Willard. 100 Americans Who Changed History. Milwaukee: World Almanac, 2005. Print.
Book by Two Authors
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial and Author First Name Middle Initial Last Name. Book Title. City Published:
Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex: Broer, Lawrence R., and Gloria Holland. Hemingway and Women: Female Critics and the Female Voice.
Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002. Print.
Book by Three or More Authors
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial, et al. Book Title. City Published: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
25
Ex: Smith, John R., et al. Rock and Roll Divas. New York: Prestwick House, 2009. Print.
Book with an Editor
Editor Last Name, First Name Middle Initial, ed. Book Title. City Published: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex: Weisser, Susan Ostrov, ed. Women and Romance: A Reader. New York: New York UP, 2001. Print.
Book by a Corporate Author
Name of Corporation. Book Title. City Published: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex: National Research Council. Beyond Six Billion: Forecasting the World’s Population. Washington: Natl. Acad.,
2000. Print.
Book with No Author or Editor Given
Book Title. City Published: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex: American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style. Boston: Houghton, 2005. Print.
Encyclopedia Article (World Book, Britannica, etc.)
“Title of Article.” Name of Encyclopedia. Year edition. Print.
Ex: “Japan.” The Encyclopedia Americana. 2008 ed. Print.
(For a signed article, give the name of the author at the beginning, last name first.)
Article in a Specialized Reference Work
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Name of Reference Work. Editor First Name Last Name. # edition. Volume
#. City Published: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex. Abraham, Nabeel. “Arab Americans.” Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America. Ed. Jeffrey Lehman. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. Print.
A Work (Essay, Poem, Short Story) in an Anthology or Edited Collection
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Essay, Poem, or Short Story.” Name of Anthology. Editor’s First Name Last
Name. # edition. City Published: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex. Soto, Gary. “One Last Time.” The Blair Reader: Exploring Issues and Ideas. Eds. Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell. 7th
ed. Boston: Prentice Hall, 2011. 402-409. Print.
Books (Electronic)
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. Book Title. Website Name. Publisher, Publication Date. Web.
Day Month Year of Access.
Ex. Milton, Michael. Head First Data Analysis. Safari Books Online. O’Reilly Media, 3 Aug. 2009. Web. 5 Aug. 2009.
Personal Interview
Interviewee Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. Interview Type (Personal, Telephone, E-mail). Day Month Year of
Interview.
Ex. Smith, John. Personal interview. 10 Aug. 2008.
26
A Multivolume Work
Editor’s Last Name, First Name, ed. Book Title. Edition. Volume. City of Publication: Publisher, Year Published. Print.
Ex: Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd ed. 29 vols. New York: Grove, 2001. Print.
Reprinted Article
Ex: Holladay, Hillary. “Narrative Space in Ann Petry’s Country Place.” Xavier Review 16.1 (1996): 21-35. Rpt. in
Twentieth Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Linda Pavlovski and Scott Darga. Vol. 112. Detroit: Gale, 2002.
356-62. Print.
Web Publications
AN ENTIRE WEBSITE:
Website Name. Website Publisher/Sponsor, Day Month Year of Publication (if available). Web. Day Month Year of Access.
Ex. About.com. The New York Times Co., 2009. Web. 5 Aug. 2009.
ARTICLE FROM A WEBSITE:
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Website Name. Website Publisher/Sponsor,
Day Month Year of Publication. Web. Day Month Year of Access.
Ex. “Underwater Engineers: Princeton Students Design ROVs.” Ohio.gov: Department of Education. Ohio Department of Education,
n.d. Web. 3 Aug. 2009.
Recorded Film—DVD, Video Cassette
Title. Director. Other key individuals if desired (performers, writers, etc.). Distributor, Distribution Date. DVD/Videocassette.
Ex. American President. Dir. Rob Reiner. Perf. Michael Douglas and Annette Bening. Warner Home Video, 1999. DVD.
Online Media (Online Video Clip, Webcast)
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. (or Screen Name or Corporate Author). “Document or File Title.”
Document/File Date. Website Title. Medium of Publication. Day Month Year of Access.
Ex. TheKheinz. “JK Wedding Entrance Dance.” n.d. YouTube. Online Video Clip. 02 Sep. 2009.
Note: Use screen name as author name when author name is not known. If both names are known, place the author’s name in
brackets (ex. Funnyman123 [John Smith]).
Blogs, Listservs, Wikis
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. (and/or Screen Name) “Posting Title.” Website Name. Publisher, Day Month
Year Posted (if available). Web. Day Month Year Accessed.
Ex. Bartholomew, Anne. “Omni Daily Crush: What We Eat When We Eat Alone.” Omnivoracious. Amazon.com, 14 Aug. 2009.
Web. 17 Aug. 2009.
Periodicals
Note: Do not include volume number for magazines or newspapers, even if available.
SCHOLARLY JOURNAL—PRINT OR WEB:
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title Volume.Issue (Year Published): Page Numbers.
Print or Web. Day Month Year of Access (Web only).
27
Ex. Burke, Marina, Jeremy Boal, and Ruth Mitchell. “Communicating for Better Care: Improving Nurse-Physician
Communication.” American Journal of Nursing 104.12 (2004): 40-48. Print.
MAGAZINE ARTICLE—PRINT OR WEB:
Author Last Name, First Name Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Periodical Title Publication Date: Page Numbers. Print or Web.
Day Month Year of Access (Web only).
Ex. Begley, Sharon. “It Pays to be Nice: How Emotions Shape Our Economic Decisions.” Newsweek 10 Sep. 2009: n. pag. Web. 10
Sep. 2009.
KATY ISD LIBRARY RESOURCES (Databases)
**All databases will usually have a MLA citation at the end of the article; however, you still need to
check it against this page to make sure that it is correct.**
Gale Group
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Original Source of Publication Volume (Date of Publication): pg.#. Name
of Database. Gale. Web. Date of Access.
Ex: Champion, Laurie. "Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird." The Explicator 61.4 (Summer 2003): p234. Literature Resource
Center. Gale. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Ex: Zaidman, Laura M. "Harper Lee: Overview." Twentieth-Century Young Adult Writers. Ed. Laura Standley Berger.
Twentieth-Century Writers Series. Detroit: St. James Press, 1994. Literature Resource Center. Gale. Web.
25 Oct. 2009.
ABC-CLIO
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Original Source of Publication. Date of Publication. ABC-CLIO. Web.
Date of Access.
Ex: "Switzerland: Country Overview." Social Studies. 2009. ABC-CLIO. Web. 15 Nov. 2009.
Grolier
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Original Source of Publication. Date of Publication. Grolier Online. Web.
Date of Access.
Ex: Pasquier, Roger F. "Owl." Encyclopedia Americana. 2009. Grolier Online. Web. 25 Nov. 2009.
SIRS
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Original Source of Publication. Date of Publication. SIRS Discoverer.
Web. Date of Access.
Ex: Michael McKiernan. "Out In the Cold." National Post (Ontario, Canada) 19 Mar 2009: A.3. SIRS Researcher. Web.
25 Oct. 2009.
Encyclopedia Britannica
“Title of Article.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Date of Publication. Web. Date of Access.
28
Ex: "Globe Theatre." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2009. Web. 15 June 2009.
CultureGrams
“Title of Article.” CultureGrams Online Edition. Date of Publication. ProQuest. Web. Date of Access.
Ex: "Spain." CultureGrams Online Edition. 2009. ProQuest. Web. 25 Nov. 2009.
For more detailed information on citing specific resources, consult the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, seventh edition, published by the Modern
Language Association of America. Revised 10/27/2009
Ethics in Research:
Avoiding Plagiarism, Citing Sources, Understanding Common Knowledge
When using information taken from a book, magazine, or any reference source, unless it is considered
“common knowledge,” you must indicate from whom and where the information came. This avoids
committing plagiarism, the conscious or unconscious use of someone else’s ideas without properly crediting
him or her.
WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO CITE SOURCES?
1. Avoiding plagiarism: A researcher must rigorously avoid presenting another person’s ideas, analyses, or
interpretations as his or her own. The omission of the source author and title suggests that the
information originated with the researcher. This omission is dishonest and illegal and has serious
consequences.
2. Providing your reader easy access to your facts, statistics, expert opinions, etc.: For example, when you
make a statistical claim in your paper, it is essential to point your reader directly to the source and page
number from which that statistic comes. Doing so bolsters your credentials and satisfies your obligation
to prove your assertions.
FREQUENT QUESTIONS STUDENTS HAVE:
1. “If I put my sources on my Works Cited page, then why must I use internal citations?”
Well, the answer is simple when you think about it: a Works Cited page is potentially a long list of
works. Without an internal citation, how would someone know which source to look in to find that
statistic? A Works Cited page alone, though essential, is insufficient.
29
2. “I didn’t know anything about my topic, so does that mean I am going to have to quote every single
sentence in my paper?”
The short answer is NO. But why not is what students really need to understand. A research paper does
not consist only of research. It also consists of your position statement and your commentary on your
research, which explains why your position statement is correct.
3.
“Teachers say I don’t have to cite common knowledge, but I’m not sure what common knowledge is.
How can I tell if something is common knowledge or not?”
So what is common knowledge?
It can’t really be “stuff that everybody (or most people) know,” because that is immeasurable. It’s a
good idea to consider two points when determining whether something is common knowledge, therefore
not requiring citation:


What is the purpose of the information?
o If it’s background information, like someone’s birth and death dates, or the year(s) that some
known event took place, like the dates of the Civil War and NOT being used to support your
thesis, then a citation isn’t necessary.
Is the information debatable?
o If it doesn’t seem to fit with other information you have found or if it is solely an opinion,
then it must be cited.
Internal Citations
When you use information taken from a book, magazine, or reference source, you must indicate where the information
came from. Otherwise, you will be guilty of PLAGIARISM!
All quoted information or information that is not common knowledge must be cited, even if you put it into your own
words.
You MUST use a new internal citation:
 When you change sources
 When you have a direct quote
 When you change paragraphs
 When you change page numbers of the same source.
1. Citing a work by a single author
In the first example below, the internal citation indicates that the information came from page 26 of a book by Smith. The
reader of your paper can look at the Works Cited page and locate the title of the book by Smith.
Examples:
Paraphrased source
According to legend, King Arthur lived sometime in the sixth century. He was put into the care of Sir Ector as an orphan
child by Merlin the magician (Smith 26).
Quoted source
30
In our rapidly changing world, “new aspects of the national personality may be suddenly brought to light by a political or
military event” (Hardwick 130).
2. Citing one work by an author of two or more works
If your list of works cited contains two or more titles by the same author, place a comma after the author’s name, add a
shortened version of the title of the work, and then supply the relevant page numbers. Another solution is to cite the
author’s last name and title in your sentence and then add the page numbers in a parenthetical reference.
Examples:
Once society reaches a certain stage of industrial growth, it will shift its energies to the production of services (Toffler,
Future 196).
*Toffler argues in The Third Wave that society has gone through two eras (agricultural and industrial) and is now entering
a new stage of civilization (8).
* You do not need to give the author’s name in your internal citation because the author’s name is mentioned in
your sentence.
3. Citing one work by an author who has the same last name as another author in your
list of works cited
When your list contains sources by two or more authors with the same last name, avoid confusion by supplying the
author’s first name in the parenthetical reference or in your sentence. In the list of works cited, the two authors should be
alphabetized according to first name.
Examples:
Naturalist fiction achieves its effects by the sheer accumulation of details (Frederick Hoffman 51).
Folklore and myth provide valuable insights for the literary critic (Daniel Hoffman 9-15).
4. Citing a work by more than one author
If you are citing a book by three or more authors, you should place their names in a parenthetical reference to sustain the
readability of your sentence. Remember, the author of a work by three or more authors can be shortened by using the first
author’s name, plus “et al.”
Examples:
In the Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson’s attempts to list America’s grievances against England (Boiler et
al. 58).
Other historians view the Declaration of Independence as Jefferson’s attempt to formulate the principles of America’s
political philosophy (Norton et al. 124).
5. Citing a multivolume work
31
If you are citing one volume from a multivolume work, indicate the specific volume you used in your list of works cited.
If you used all or several of the volumes, document which volume you are citing in your parenthetical reference.
Example:
William Faulkner’s initial reluctance to travel produced considerable consternation in the American embassy (Blotner 2:
1347).
6. Citing a work by title where no author is listed
Works by anonymous authors are alphabetized in the list of works cited according to the first main word in the title. A
shortened version of the title itself, replaces the author’s last name in the parenthetical reference in the paper.
Example:
The State Museum has an exhibit about giant beavers who walked the earth (“Talk” 26).
*If it is an online source, there will be no page number.
7. Citing more than one work in a single parenthetical reference
If you need to include two or more works in a single parenthetical reference, document each reference according to the
normal pattern but separate each citation with a semicolon.
Example:
Brutus is considered to be the tragic hero in Shakespeare tragedy, Julius Caesar (Oleson 59; Trimble 85; Hylton 63).
Last name—page #
Works Cited
Addison, Lane. How to Become a Teacher—10 Easy Steps. Milwaukee: World Almanac,
2005. Print.
“Handbook Guideline.” English Occupations 2009. ABC-CLIO. Web. 20 Feb. 2012.
Jobs, Carlisle, ed. All in a Day’s Work. New York: New York UP, 2001. Print.
Markovits, Jeanne et al. “Teaching Today.” Newsweek. 16 Nov. 2011. Web. 20 Feb. 2012.
McCormick, Janet. Truths and Lies. Savannah, GA: Prestwick House, 2011. Print.
Roscoe, Justin. “Teachers—The Movie.” US News and World Report 30 Jan. 2010: n. pag. Web.
20 Feb. 2012.
Stevenson, Ralph. “Teachers Review.” Ask.com. New York Times Co., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2012.
32
What’s Next—An In Depth Look. Dallas, TX: Random House, 2007. Print.
ALWAYS FOLLOW THESE GUIDELINES WHEN TYPING YOUR WORKS CITED PAGE:
Diction - the connotation of the word choice
1. Student’s Last Name and continued pagination from the essay always goes in the upper right-hand
corner.
What words
does the author choose? Consider his/her word choice compared to another. Why did the author choose that
particular
word?
What are thethe
connotations
of thatCited
word(because
choice? it is a list of the sources cited in your essay).
2. Title is ALWAYS
same—Works
 Laugh:
guffaw,
chuckle, titter, giggle,
cackle,
snicker,
roar
3. Sources
are listed
ALPHABETICALLY
by first
word
in the bibliography.
 Old:SPACING
mature, experienced,
antique,
senior,
ancient
4. DOUBLE
throughout the
page.relic,
No extra
space
between entries.
 Fat: obese, plump, corpulent, portly, porky, burly, husky, full-figured
5. NOT Numbered, Bulleted, or Lettered.
6. After each item, type a PERIOD and a SPACE before typing in the next item.
7. If an entry has more than one line, all lines following are indented only once. This is called a
HANGING INDENTION.
8. NEVER put the URL address in your bibliographies. ALWAYS use the word WEB in place of the URL.
9. ALWAYS use the word PRINT for physical books and magazines.
10. When putting an INTERNAL CITATION in your essay, ALWAYS use the FIRST WORD in the
bibliography on the WORKS CITED page—it may be the author’s or editor’s last name, the first MAIN
word of the article or book title.
a. Example: “….” (Addison 25).
b. Example: “….” (“Handbook”).
c. Example: “….” (What’s Next 252).
** IF A SOURCE IS NOT INTERNALLY (PARENTHETICALLY) CITED IN YOUR ESSAY, THEN IT
SHOULD NOT BE ON YOUR WORKS CITED PAGE!!!!!
DIDLS: The Key to TONE
Images - vivid appeals to understanding through the senses - concrete language
What images does the author use? What does he/she focus on in a sensory (sight, touch, taste, smell, etc.) way? The kinds
of images the author puts in or leaves out reflect his/her style? Are they vibrant? Prominent? Plain? NOTE: Images differ
from detail in the degree to which they appeal to the senses.
 An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king. (somber, candid)
 He clasps the crag with crooked hands. (dramatic)
 Love sets you going like a fat gold watch. (fanciful)
 Smiling, the boy fell dead. (shocking)
Details - facts that are included or those that are omitted; the speaker's perspective shapes what details are given and
which are not.
What details are does the author choose to include? What do they imply? What does the author choose to exclude?
What are the connotations of their choice of details? PLEASE NOTE: Details are facts or fact-lets. They differ from
images in that they don't have a strong sensory appeal.
Language - the overall use of language, such as formal, clinical, jargon, figurative
What is the overall impression of the language the author uses? Does it reflect education? A particular profession?
Intelligence? Is it plain? Ornate? Simple? Clear? Figurative? Poetic? Make sure you don't skip this step.
Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone. Consider language to be the entire body of words used
in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction.
33
For example, an invitation to a wedding might use formal language, while a biology text would use scientific and clinical
language.
• When I told Dad that I had goofed the exam, he blew his top. (slang)
• I had him on the ropes in the fourth and if one of my short rights had connected, he'd have gone down for the
count. (jargon)
• A close examination and correlation of the most reliable current economic indexes justifies the conclusion that
the next year will witness a continuation of the present, upward market trend. (turgid, pedantic)
Sentence Structure (Syntax) - how structure affects the reader's attitude
What are the sentences like? Are they simple with one or two clauses? Do they have multiple phrases? Are they choppy?
Flowing? Sinuous like a snake? Is there antithesis, chiasmus, parallel construction? What emotional impression do they
leave? If we are talking about poetry, what is the meter? Is there a rhyme scheme?
 Parallel syntax (similarly styled phrases and sentences) creates interconnected emotions, feelings and ideas.
 Short sentences are punchy and intense. Long sentences are distancing, reflective and more abstract.
 Loose sentences point at the end. Periodic sentences point at the beginning, followed by modifiers and phrases.
 The inverted order of an interrogative sentence cues the reader to a question and creates tension between speaker
and listener.
 Short sentences are often emphatic, passionate or flippant, whereas longer sentences suggest greater thought.
 Sentence structure affects tone.
Advanced Placement of the College Board Tone Word List
Tone Shift: Good authors are rarely monotone. A speaker's attitude can shift on a topic, or an author might have one
attitude toward the audience and another toward the subject. The following are some clues to watch for shifts in tone:
• Key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although)
• Changes in sentence length
• Punctuation (dashes, periods, colons)
• Sharp contrasts in diction
• Paragraph divisions
Positive
amiable
appreciative
authoritative
benevolent
brave
compassionate
confident
consoling
ecstatic
encouraging
energetic
enthusiastic
exuberant
fanciful
impassioned
jubilant
lighthearted
optimistic
passionate
peaceful
relaxed
reverent
romantic
soothing
sympathetic
vibrant
whimsical
belligerent
callous
childish
choleric
coarse
condemnatory
condescending
contradictory
critical
desperate
disappointed
disgruntled
disgusted
facetious
furious
indignant
inflammatory
insulting
irritated
manipulative
obnoxious
outraged
passive
quarrelsome
shameful
surly
testy
wrathful
dejected
foreboding
grave
hollow
hopeless
lugubrious
miserable
morose
mournful
ominous
paranoid
pessimistic
pitiful
poignant
regretful
remorseful
resigned
solemn
somber
staid
bitter
caustic
comical
Negative
accusing
admonitory
agitated
apathetic
arrogant
artificial
audacious
Sorrow/Fear/Worry
aggravated
agitated
anxious
apologetic
apprehensive
Humor/Irony/Sarcasm
amused
bantering
34
condescending
contemptuous
critical
cynical
disdainful
droll
facetious
Miscellaneous
allusive
apathetic
authoritative
baffled
candid
ceremonial
clinical
contemplative
conventional
detached
didactic
disbelieving
flippant
giddy
humorous
insolent
ironic
irreverent
joking
disinterested
dramatic
earnest
expectant
factual
fervent
formal
forthright
frivolous
histrionic
humble
incredulous
malicious
mock-heroic
mocking
mock-serious
patronizing
pompous
quizzical
informative
inquisitive
instructive
intimate
judgmental
learned
loud
lyrical
matter-of-fact
meditative
nostalgic
objective
35
ribald
ridiculing
sad
sarcastic
sardonic
satiric
scornful
obsequious
patriotic
persuasive
pleading
pretentious
provocative
questioning
reflective
reminiscent
resigned
restrained
seductive
sharp
silly
taunting
teasing
whimsical
wry
sentimental
serious
shocking
sincere
smooth
unemotional
urgent
vexed
wistful
zealous
Style and Rhetorical Appeals Graphic Organizer
Thesis
The sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose,
meaning, or proposition.
Structure
• Overall Structure of Essay
• Length/Order of Paragraphs
Types of Writing (Rhetorical Modes)
• Description
• Narrative
• Persuasion
• Exposition (Example, Definition Classification/Division, Process Analysis,
Compare/Contrast, Cause/Effect)
Syntax
Syntax refers to the arrangement of words within a phrase, clause, or sentence.
• Type/Length of Sentence:
segregating, freight-train, parataxis, triadic, cumulative, parallelism, balanced, loose,
periodic, convoluted, centered, fragment)
• Active/Passive Voice
• Antithesis
• Aphorism
• Chiasmus
• Juxtaposition
• Punctuation Use
• Repetition/Alliteration
Diction
Diction refers to a writer's word choice
• Abstract/Concrete
• Ambiguity
• Colloquial/Slang/Pretensions
• Clichés/ Euphemism/Jargon
• Denotation/Connotation of a word
• Formal v. Informal/ Levels of Usage
• Hyperbole
• Idiom
• Onomatopoeia
• Tone of a word (emotional charge of word)
Figurative
Language
Similes, Metaphors, Personification, Allusion, Irony, Overstatement/Understatement, Puns,
Imagery, Allegory, Analogy, Apostrophe, Conceit, Extended Metaphor, Metonymy,
Oxymoron, Paradox, Symbolism
Rhetorical
Appeals
• Ethos:
Establishes credibility of speaker.
• Logos:
Employs logical reasoning and clear examples.
• Pathos:
Plays on reader’s emotions and interests.
SOAPS-Tone Analysis
S - What is the Subject?
The general topic, content, idea in the text. You should be able to state the subject in a few words or phrases.
O - What is the Occasion?
The time and place of the piece; the context that prompted the writing. Note the larger occasion, that is, the broad issue
which is the center of ideas, attitudes, and emotions. Also note, if present, the immediate occasion, that is, the event or
situation that caught the writer’s attention and triggered a response.
A -Who is the Audience?
The group of readers to whom this piece is directed. Does the author identify an audience? Is it one individual, a group,
many groups? What assumptions can you make about the intended audience? This choice of audience will affect how and
why the writer creates a particular text.
P - What is the Purpose?
The speaker’s reason for writing the text. What does the speaker want the audience to think or feel or do as a result of
reading this text?
S - Who is the Speaker?
What facts do you know about the speaker? (These facts may help you make judgments about the speaker’s point of
view). What assumptions can you make about the speaker? (e.g., age, gender, class, emotional state, etc.)What does the
writing say about the speaker? Remember that the author and the speaker are not necessarily the same.
Tone - What is the Tone?
The attitude of the speaker toward the subject. What emotional sense do you take from the piece? What is the speaker’s
tone towards his or her subject? The spoken word can convey the speaker’s attitude and help impart meaning through tone
of voice. However, with the written word, tone is conveyed through the writer’s diction (word choice), syntax (sentence
construction), and imagery (metaphors, similes, vivid description).
Additionally, we should ask:
 HOW does the speaker/writer try to achieve his/her purpose? Are these choices EFFECTIVE?
• Which persuasive appeals are used? Identify key examples. Are they effective? Why/why not?
-Logos (facts, statistics)
-Pathos (emotion)
-Ethos (trustworthiness, common values)
• What rhetorical devices are used? Identify key examples. Are they effective? Why/why not?
(e.g. alliteration, anaphora, antithesis, apostrophe, assonance, chiasmus, euphemism, hyperbole, irony,litotes, metaphor,
metonymy, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, paradox, personification, pun, simile, juxtaposition, synecdoche, understatement,
etc.)
Adapted from an AP College Board Resource
37
AP English Language Multiple Choice Question Stems
Questions about Rhetoric
1. The shift in point of view has the effect of …
2. The syntax of lines _____ to _____ serves to …
3. The author’s reference/allusion to “___” serves primarily to …
4. The second sentence is unified by metaphorical references to …
5. As lines _____ and _____ are constructed, "_____" is parallel to which of the following?
6. The antecedent for "_____" is …
7. The diction in the piece is best described as…
8. The syntax in the piece is best described as …
9. In paragraph __ the author employs which of the following rhetorical strategies …
10. One prominent stylistic characteristic of the piece is the use of…
11. The primary rhetorical function of lines--- “____” is to …
12. In the sentence “___” the speaker employs all of the following EXCEPT…
Questions about the Author's Meaning and Purpose
13. Which of the following best identifies the meaning of "_____"?
14. Which of the following best describes the author's purpose in the last sentence?
15. The author’s primary purpose is to…
16. The primary audience of the piece could be described as…
17. The authors uses (this certain image) for the purpose of…
18. The author emphasizes "_____" in order to …
19. The reason for the shift in tone in paragraph __ is due to …
20. The sympathy (or other word) referred to in line _____ is called "adjective" because it …
21. What is the function of _____ ?
22. The phrase, “__” functions primarily as …
Questions about the Main Idea
23. The theme of the second paragraph is …
24. The speaker's attitude is best described as one of …
25. The tone of the piece (or parts of it) is one of…
26. In context, the sentence "_____" is best interpreted as which of the following?
27. The atmosphere is one of …
28. Which of the following would the author be LEAST likely to encourage?
29. Which of the following best summarizes the main topic of the passage …
30. In the piece, the author makes all of the following assumptions about his/her readers EXCEPT…
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Questions about Organization and Structure
31. The quotation "_____" signals a shift from …
32. The tone of the passage shifts from one of___ to one of ___.
33. The speaker's mention of "_____" is appropriate to the development of her argument by …
34. The type of argument employed by the author is most similar to which of the following?
35. The author uses a pattern of organization best described as …
36. The relationship between _____ and _____ is explained primarily by the use of which of the
following?
37. Which of the following best describes the function of the ____ paragraph in relation to the paragraphs
that precede it …
Questions about Rhetorical Modes
38. The pattern of exposition exemplified in the passage can best be described as …
39. The author's use of description is appropriate because …
40. Which of the following best describes the author's method?
41. Because the author uses expository format, he is able to …
42. The speaker's rhetorical strategy is to …
43. The author contrasts ___ and ___ in order to …
39
Three Column Poetry Analysis
What the Poet Says
First Reading: Read for the literal
meaning.
What the Poet Does
Second Reading: Annotate for the tools
the poet uses
What the Poet Implies
Final Reading: Draw Conclusions about
the effect of the tools used
(TPCASTT: Paraphrase)
(TPCASTT: Title and shifts)
(TPCASTT: Connotation and attitude)
Misreading occur when students divorce
their interpretation from the literal story
line of the poem. You MUST first
understand what is actually there on the
page.
The text of the poem appears in the
column.
There are two kinds of poems: lyric and
narrative. A lyric focuses on emotion
while a narrative tells a story.
Diction: Which words stand out as
having a strong punch of meaning?
For each of the bits of language you
marked in column 2, draw a conclusion
about the effect of that language in the
context of the literal situation! Ground
your conclusions in close attention to the
implications of the specific language in the
text.
If you have a narrative, consider the
literary elements:
 Setting: Where are you and why
does it matter?
 Character: Who is the speaker
(personal) and what do you know
about him/her? Who else is in the
poem and what are they like?
 Plot: What happens?
 Conflict: What problem(s) does the
narrator face or describe? Who or
what causes the problem?
 Point of View: From whose
perspective is the poem told and what
effect does that have on the way you
see what is happening? Is the
speaker reliable? What biases does
the speaker have? Does gender or
age matter?
If you have a lyric poem, there is still a
speaker with a character and point of
view, probably a setting and conflict of
some kind as well.
If the language is not literal, still visualize
it as if it were.
This time, read to identify the tools the
poet uses. Consider:
Images: What images seems especially
strong or important?
Do NOT only work with the small bit of
language without considering how it
contributes to the literal situation of the
poem.
Details: More factual than images, which
seem important?
Look for irony.
Figurative Language: The list is long,
but the basics are metaphor, simile,
personification, hyperbole, allusion,
symbol, and irony. If you can’t tell what
device is used but recognize it is not
literal language and seems important,
mark it anyway.
Determine tone (the speaker’s attitude
towards his or her subject) and if tone
shifts or changes anywhere (generally
signaled by conjunctions; for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so; however, it can also be
signaled by changes in line length, rhyme
scheme, stanza structure, etc.).
FYI: A metaphor and simile compare
something literal in the poem to
something seemingly dissimilar but really
related to understand the original thing
better. A symbol is something literal in
the story that stands for or evokes an
abstract idea.
Form: Consider line breaks, line length,
enjambment, stanzas, repetition, white
space, punctuation, rhyme, meter, sound.
It will be pointless to write about form,
however, unless you can tie it to meaning.
(TPCASTT: Theme)
Focus Statement: Write one sentence that includes author, title, literal situation, tone, and theme. Do NOT use those words,
however. There’s no need to say “…a tone of anger…” or “the theme of love…” Instead, for example, say something like, “In “So
Long Farewell” by Paul Smith, the speaker confronts his cheating lover in an exclusive and very public restaurant [literal
situation] and through his cool and sarcastic dialogue [tone] with his beloved declares that romantic love is a fraud women
commit through their insincere and untrustworthy flattery of men to get what they want [theme].
40
Archetypes and Symbols
Situation Archetypes
1.
The Quest
2.
The Task
3.
The Journey
4.
The Initiation
5.
The Ritual
6.
The Fall
7.
Death and Rebirth
8.
Nature vs. Mechanistic
World
9. Battle between Good
and Evil
10. The Unhealable Wound
11. The Magic Weapon
12. Father-Son Conflict
13. Innate Wisdom vs.
Educated Stupidity
Description
This motif describes the search for someone or some talisman which, when found and brought back,
will restore fertility to a wasted land, the desolation of which is mirrored by a leader’s illness and
disability
This refers to a possibly superhuman feat that must be accomplished in order to fulfill the ultimate
goal.
The journey sends the hero in search for some truth of information necessary to restore fertility,
justice, and/or harmony to the kingdom. The journey includes the series of trials and tribulations the
hero faces along the way. Usually the hero descends into a real or psychological hell and is forced to
discover the blackest truths, quite often concerning his faults. Once the hero is at this lowest level,
he must accept personal responsibility to return to the world of the living.
This situation refers to a moment, usually psychological, in which an individual comes into
maturity. He or she gains a new awareness into the nature of circumstances and problems and
understands his or her responsibility for trying to resolve the dilemma. Typically, a hero receives a
calling, a message or signal that he or she must make sacrifices and become responsible for getting
involved in the problem. Often a hero will deny and question the calling and ultimately, in the
initiation, will accept responsibility
Not to be confused with the initiation, the ritual refers to an organized ceremony that involves
honored members of a given community and an Initiate. This situation officially brings the young
man or woman into the realm of the community’s adult world.
– Not to be confused with the awareness in the initiation, this archetype describes a descent in action
from a higher to a lower state of being, an experience which might involve defilement, moral
imperfection, and/or loss of innocence. This fall is often accompanied by expulsion from a kind of
paradise as penalty for disobedience and/or moral transgression.
The most common of all situational archetypes, this motif grows out of the parallel between the
cycle of nature and the cycle of life. It refers to those situations in which someone or something,
concrete and/or metaphysical dies, yet is accompanied by some sign of birth or rebirth.
– Expressed in its simplest form, this refers to situations which suggest that nature is good whereas
the forces of technology are bad.
These situations pit obvious forces which represent good and evil against one another.
Typically, good ultimately triumphs over evil despite great odds.
This wound, physical or psychological, cannot be healed fully. This would also indicate a loss of
innocence or purity. Often the wounds’ pain drives the sufferer to desperate measures of madness.
– Sometimes connected with the task, this refers to a skilled individual hero’s ability to use a piece
of technology in order to combat evil, continue a journey, or to prove his or her identity as a chosen
individual.
Tension often results from separation during childhood or from an external source when the
individuals meet as men and where the mentor often has a higher place in the affections of the hero
than the natural parent. Sometimes the conflict is resolved in atonement.
Some characters exhibit wisdom and understanding intuitively as opposed to those supposedly in
charge.
Character Archetypes
1.
The Hero
2.
3.
Young Person from the
Provinces
The Initiates
4.
Mentors
5.
Hunting Group of
Companions
In its simplest form, this character is the one ultimately who may fulfill a necessary task and who
will restore fertility, harmony, and/or justice to a community. The hero character is the one who
typically experiences an initiation, who goes the community’s ritual (s), et cetera. Often he or she
will embody characteristics of YOUNG PERSON FROM THE
PROVINCES, INITIATE, INNATE WISDOM, PUPIL, and SON.
This hero is taken away as an infant or youth and raised by strangers. He or she later returns home
as a stranger and able to recognize new problems and new solutions.
These are young heroes who, prior to the quest, must endure some training and ritual. They are
usually innocent at this stage.
These individuals serve as teachers or counselors to the initiates. Sometimes they work as role
models and often serve as father or mother figure. They teach by example the skills necessary to
survive the journey and quest.
These loyal companions are willing to face any number of perils in order to be together.
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6.
Loyal Retainers
7.
8.
Friendly Beast
The Devil Figure
9.
The Evil Figure with
the Ultimately Good
Heart
10. The Scapegoat
11. The Outcast
12. The Earth Mother
13. The Temptress
14. The Platonic Ideal
15. The Unfaithful Wife
16. The Damsel in Distress
17. The Star-Crossed
Lovers
18. The Creature of
Nightmare
These individuals are like the noble sidekicks to the hero. Their duty is to protect the hero. Often the
retainer reflects the hero’s nobility.
These animals assist the hero and reflect that nature is on the hero’s side.
This character represents evil incarnate. He or she may offer worldly goods, fame, or knowledge to
the protagonist in exchange for possession of the soul or integrity. This figure’s main aim is to
oppose the hero in his or her quest.
This redeemable devil figure (or servant to the devil figure) is saved by the hero’s nobility or good
heart.
An animal or more usually a human whose death, often in a public ceremony, excuses some taint or
sin that has been visited upon the community. This death often makes them more powerful force to
the hero.
This figure is banished from a community for some crime (real or imagined). The outcast is usually
destined to become a wanderer.
This character is symbolic of fulfillment, abundance, and fertility; offers spiritual and emotional
nourishment to those who she contacts; often depicted in earth colors, with large breasts and hips.
Characterized by sensuous beauty, she is one whose physical attraction may bring about the hero’s
downfall.
This source of inspiration often is a physical and spiritual ideal for whom the hero has an intellectual
rather than physical attraction.
This woman, married to a man she sees as dull or distant, is attracted to a more virile or interesting
man.
This vulnerable woman must be rescued by the hero. She also may be used as a trap, by an evil
figure, to ensnare the hero.
These two character are engaged in a love affair that is fated to end in tragedy for one or both due to
the disapproval of society, friends, family, or the gods.
This monster, physical or abstract, is summoned from the deepest, darkest parts of the human
psyche to threaten the lives of the hero/heroine. Often it is a perversion or desecration of the human
body.
Symbolic Archetypes
1.
Light vs. Dark
2.
Water vs. Desert
3.
Heaven vs. Hell
4.
Haven vs. Wilderness
5.
6.
Supernatural
Intervention
Fire vs. Ice
7.
Colors
8.
Numbers
Light usually suggests hope, renewal, OR intellectual illumination; darkness implies the unknown,
ignorance, or despair.
Because water is necessary to life and growth, it commonly appears as a birth or rebirth symbol.
Water is used in baptism services, which solemnizes spiritual births. Similarly, the appearance of
rain in a work of literature can suggest a character’s spiritual birth.
Humanity has traditionally associated parts of the universe not accessible to it with the dwelling
places of the primordial forces that govern its world. The skies and mountaintops house its gods; the
bowels of the earth contain the diabolic forces that inhabit its universe.
Places of safety contrast sharply against the dangerous wilderness. Heroes are often sheltered for a
time to regain health and resources.
The gods intervene on the side of the hero or sometimes against him.
Fire represents knowledge, light, life, and rebirth while ice like desert represents ignorance,
darkness, sterility, and death.
a. Black (darkness) – chaos, mystery, the unknown, before existence, death, the unconscious, evil
b. Red – blood, sacrifice; violent passion, disorder, sunrise, birth, fire, emotion, wounds, death,
sentiment, mother, Mars, the note C, anger, excitement, heat, physical stimulation
c. Green – hope, growth, envy, Earth, fertility, sensation, vegetation, death, water, nature, sympathy,
adaptability, growth, Jupiter and Venus, the note G, envy
d. White (light) – purity, peace, innocence, goodness, Spirit, morality, creative force, the direction
East, spiritual thought
e. Orange – fire, pride, ambition, egoism, Venus, the note D
f. Blue – clear sky, the day, the sea, height, depth, heaven, religious feeling, devotion, innocence,
truth, spirituality, Jupiter, the note F, physical soothing and cooling
g. Violet – water, nostalgia, memory, advanced spirituality, Neptune, the note B
h. Gold – Majesty, sun, wealth, corn (life dependency), truth
i. Silver – Moon, wealth
a. Three – the Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Ghost); Mind, Body, Spirit, Birth, Life, Death
b. Four – Mankind (four limbs), four elements, four seasons
42
9.
Shapes
10. Nature
11. Objects
c. Six – devil, evil
d. Seven – Divinity (3) + Mankind (4) = relationship between man and God, seven deadly sins,
seven days of week, seven days to create the world, seven stages of civilization, seven colors of the
rainbow, seven gifts of Holy Spirit.
a. Oval – woman, passivity
b. Triangle – communication, between heaven and earth, fire, the number 3, trinity, aspiration,
movement upward, return to origins, sight, light
c. Square – pluralism, earth, firmness, stability, construction, material solidity, the number four
d. Rectangle – the most rational, most secure
e. Cross – the Tree of life, axis of the world, struggle, martyrdom, orientation in space
f. Circle – Heaven, intellect, thought, sun, the number two, unity, perfection, eternity, oneness,
celestial realm, hearing, sound
g. Spiral – the evolution of the universe, orbit, growth, deepening, cosmic motion, relationship
between unity and multiplicity, macrocosm, breath, spirit, water
a. Air – activity, creativity, breath, light, freedom (liberty), movement
b. Ascent – height, transcendence, inward journey, increasing intensity
c. Center – thought, unity, timelessness, spacelessness, paradise, creator, infinity,
d. Descent – unconscious, potentialities of being, animal nature
e. Duality – Yin-Yang, opposites, complements, positive-negative, male-female, life-death
f. Earth – passive, feminine, receptive, solid
g. Fire – the ability to transform, love, life, health, control, sun, God, passion, spiritual energy,
regeneration
h. Lake – mystery, depth, unconscious
i. Crescent moon – change, transition
j. Mountain – height, mass, loftiness, center of the world, ambition, goals
k. Valley – depression, low-points, evil, unknown
l. Sun – Hero, son of Heaven, knowledge, the Divine eye, fire, life force, creative-guiding force,
brightness, splendor, active awakening, healing, resurrection, ultimate wholeness
m. Water – passive, feminine
n. Rivers/Streams – life force, life cycle
o. Stars – guidance
p. Wind – Holy Spirit, life, messenger
q. Ice/Snow – coldness, barrenness
r. Clouds/Mist – mystery, sacred
s. Rain – life giver
t. Steam – transformation to the Holy Spirit
u. Cave – feminine
v. Lightning – intuition, inspiration
w. Tree – where we learn, tree of life, tree of knowledge
x. Forest – evil, lost, fear
a. Feathers – lightness, speed
b. Shadow – our dark side, evil, devil
c. Masks – concealment
d. Boats/Rafts – safe passage
e. Bridge – change, transformation
f. Right hand – rectitude, correctness
g. Left hand – deviousness
h. Feet – stability, freedom
i. Skeleton – mortality
j. Heart – love, emotions
k. Hourglass – the passage of time
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Recognizing Patterns in Literature
The following list of patterns comes from the book How to Read Literature Like a Professor by Thomas C.
Foster who teaches at the University of Michigan. If you are serious about literary analysis, then this list of
patterns will help you in understanding literature on a deeper level.
1. Trips tend to become quests to discover self.
2. Meals together tend to be acts of communion/community or isolation.
3. Ghosts, vampires, monsters, and nasty people and sometimes simply the antagonists are not about
supernatural brew-ha-ha; they tend to depict some sort of exploitation.
4. There’s only one story. Look for allusions and archetypes.
5. Weather matters.
6. Violence and be both literal and figurative.
7. Symbols can be objects, images, events, and actions.
8. Sometimes a story is meant to change us, the readers, and through us change society.
9. Keep an eye out for Christ-figures.
10. Flying tends to represent freedom. What do you think falling represents?
11. Getting dunked or just sprinkled in something wet tends to be a baptism.
12. Geography tends to be a metaphor for the psyche.
13. Seasons tend to be traditional symbols.
14. Disabilities, Scars, and Deformities show character and theme.
15. Heart disease tends to represent problems with character and society.
16. So do illness and disease.
17. Read with your imagination.
18. Irony trumps everything!
19. Remember the difference between public and private symbols.
44
10th Grade Pre-AP/GT - Literary Terminology
allegory
alliteration
allusion
analogy
anaphora
antithesis
aphorism
apostrophe
assonance
caesura
chiasmus
conceit
consonance
double entendre
Literary Terms – Figurative Language, Rhetorical Devices and Sound Devices
The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in
addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters
to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral
truth or a generalization about human existence.
The repetition of a consonant sound at the beginning of words.
Example: “Sally sold seashells by the sea shore.”
A direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably commonly known, such as an event,
book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical.
There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
Example: “The accident was of Titanic proportions.”
A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An
analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to
something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually
engaging
The repetition of introductory words or phrases for effect/repetition is at the beginning of
successive clauses, words, or phrases.
Example: Let freedom ring from the snowcapped mountains of Colorado. Let freedom ring
from the curvaceous peaks of California…”
the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite
Example: “Though studious, he was popular; though argumentative, he was modest; though
inflexible, he was candid; and though metaphysical, yet orthodox.”
A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the
authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism
can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.
Example: “Lost time is never found again.”
A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction,
such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may
add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes,
“Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’
“Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself: “Thou still unravished bride of
quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.
The repetition of a vowel sound within words
Example: Rise and shine; down and out; “Moses supposes his toes are roses.”
A grammatical pause or break in a line of poetry (like a question mark), usually near the middle of
the line. A caesura is usually dictated by sense or natural speech rhythm rather than by metrics. In
poetry scansion, a caesura is usually indicated by the symbol //. The caesura can also be used for
rhetorical effect, as in "To err is human; || to forgive, divine." by Alexander Pope.
A figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are
related to each other through a reversal of terms.
Example: ”…ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.”
A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between
seemingly objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison
being made.
The repetition of consonant sounds, especially at the end of stressed syllables without the like
correspondence of vowels. Example: She fell in the stall next to the dinner bell.
A phrase or figure of speech that could have two meanings or that could be understood in two
different ways.
45
epiphany
epistrophe
extended metaphor
imagery
irony/ironic
juxtaposition
maxim
metaphor
meter
metonymy
motif
A sudden realization or an “ah ha” moment. Used more figuratively to describe the insight or
revelation gained when one suddenly understands the essence of a (generally commonplace)
object, gesture, statement, situation, moment, or mentality – that is, when one “sees” that
commonplace for what it really is beneath the surface and perceives its inner workings, its nature.
The repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses; it sets up a
rhythm and gains a special emphasis both by repeating the word and by putting the word in the
final position.
Examples:
“Genius is said to be self-conscious: I cannot tell whether Miss Ingram was a genius, but she was
self-conscious – remarkably self-conscious indeed.”
“We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation, under
God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people,
for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.
The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent
abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses:
1. Sight (visual)
2. Sound (auditory)
3. Touch (tactile)
4. Taste (papillary)
5. Smell (olfactory)
On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing.
For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s
cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while
simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this
term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to
how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.
The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between
what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In
general, there are three major types of irony used in language:
(1) verbal irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s)
meaning
(2) situational irony – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what
the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen
(3) dramatic irony – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of
fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.
Placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side by side, especially for
comparison or contrast.
A short statement expressing a general truth or rule of conduct.
Example: Actions speak louder than words. “Napoleon is always right.” “I will work harder.”
(from Animal Farm)
A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one
for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid,
imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.
Example: “Cape Cod is the bared and bended arm of Massachusetts.”
Rhythm that continuously repeats a single basic pattern; a unit of measure or unit of metrical
verse.
A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a figure of
speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.
Example: If news release claims that “the White House declared” rather than “the President
declared” metonymy is used.
A unifying element in an artistic work, especially any recurrent image, symbol, theme, idea, etc.
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onomatopoeia
overstatement
oxymoron
paradox
personification
point of view
pun
repetition for effect
rhetoric
rhetorical appeals
rhetorical shift
rhyme
rhythm
sarcasm
satire
simile
stanza
A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.
Examples: buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur
If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.
*See hyperbole under Diction.
From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author
groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo
shrimp” and “cruel kindness.”
Examples: “exact estimate”/”jumbo shrimp”/”pretty ugly”
A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer
inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.
Examples: Think of the beginning of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was
the worst of times....” AND Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451: “The Mechanical Hound slept, but did not
sleep…”
A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects
by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these
abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.
Example: “As London increased, however, rank and fashion rolled off to the west, and trade,
creeping on at their heels, took possession of their deserted abodes.”
Vantage point from which a narrative is told; usually told from first person, third person, third
person omniscient, or third person limited.
Types of point of view:
 First person – the character telling the story speaks as though it had happened to him or
her personally. The narrator uses personal pronouns such as “I,” “me,” “my,” etc.
 Third person omniscient – the author or speaker tells the story as though he/she knows
everything about the actions, thoughts, and feelings of all characters.
 Third person limited – the author or speaker tells the story as though he/she can only
perceive the thoughts and feelings of one of the characters.
A pun is a word employed in two senses, or a word used in a context that suggests a second term
sounding like it. Puns are usually used for comic effect.
Example: “During the two previous centuries musical styles went in one ear and out the other . .”
The repetition of specially chosen words or phrases to make a point or stress certain ideas for the
reader.
Use of language to persuade
Ethos, pathos, and logos  *See rhetorical appeals handout for detail.
Ethos - ethical appeal Pathos – emotional appeal Logos – logical appeal
A change in a piece from one point, concept or idea to another. The rhetoric shift is normally
signaled by words like then, but and however. Authors use this strategy to change to a different
style and then go back to the original style to try to prove a point.
Examples: The weather outside was very nice, however Jennifer was feeling very
depressed. Betty appears to be very nice and sweet to strangers, but she is very evil and mean to
her family and friends.
Repetition of sounds at the end of words
The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a sentence or line of poetry
The use of verbal irony in which a person appears to be praising something but is actually insulting
it.
Example: As I fell down the stairs headfirst, I heard her say, ‘Look at that coordination.’”
A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform and
ridicule
A simile is a brief comparison, usually introduced by like or as.
Example: “My words swirled around his head like summer flies.”
An arrangement of a certain number of lines, usually four or more, sometimes having a fixed
length, meter, or rhyme scheme, forming a division of a poem; like the paragraphs of poetry
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style
symbol/symbolism
synecdoche
(type of metaphor)
synesthesia
theme
tone
understatement
conflict
The way a literary work is written; the devices the author uses to express his/her thoughts and
convey the work’s subject matter. When discussing style, focus on diction, imagery, and
rhetorical strategies. Other factors include author’s purpose, narrative structure, fluency, clarity,
sound and rhythm, and tone.
Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is
something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more
abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies
symbols into three categories:
(1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly
associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love,
a tree symbolizing knowledge).
(2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group
(religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an
eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for
lawyers).
(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a
variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be
more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine
what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing
that abstraction.
Using one part of an object to represent the entire object
Examples: “Go look at my new wheels outside!” (Wheels is substituted for car)
Refers to a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters or places in such a manner that
they appeal to more than one senses like hearing, seeing, smell etc. at a given time.
Examples: “loud colors”, “frozen silence” and “warm colors”, “bitter cold”
A statement that the text seems to be making about the subject of the literary work; can be
moral or amoral lesson; in more modern works, the theme may emanate from an unmoralized, or
less obviously, moral perspective.
Writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject and/or audience. Tone is determined through
diction, imagery, detail, point of view, syntax, tone shifts, multiple tones, and vocabulary
associated with tone. *We will use the DIDLS and SOAPS-Tone strategies when analyzing tone.
The ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is; The
effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Two
specific types of understatement exist:
1. Litotes: A figure of speech by which an affirmation is made indirectly by denying its
opposite
Example: “He was not averse to drinking” means he drank a lot.
2. Meiosis: The Greek term for understatement or belittling; a rhetorical figure by which
something is referred to in terms less important than it really deserves Example: When
Mercutio calls his mortal wound a “scratch” in Romeo and Juliet.
Plot
A confrontation or struggle between opposing characters or forces in the plot from which the
action revolves.
Types of conflict:
1)Internal conflict
2)External conflict
 Man vs Man – one character against another
 Man vs Nature – a character against a force or element of nature
 Man vs Society –a character against the standards/expectations of a group or community
flashback
foreboding
An event that occurred before the opening scene of the work via remembrance, dreaming or
some other mechanism.
Creating a sense that something bad may happen
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foreshadowing
historical
mileu/setting
plot
Hints of things to come; a technique by which an author suggests or predicts an outcome of plot
Time and place, but also the historical context of a novel, play, etc.
suspense
what builds the reader’s attention
Characterization
The character pitted against the protagonist of a work with who the readers most often identify’
usually has evil or distasteful qualities, but they are not necessarily all bad. If the antagonist is all
evil, they are considered a villain.
Original model from which something is developed or made; in literary criticism those images,
figures, character types, settings, and story patterns that are universally shared by the people
across cultures and are often identifiable in a wide variety of works of literature
Methods used by an author to create a character , such as 
 Physical appearance
 Speech, thought, actions, feelings
 Other characters’ feelings, thoughts, etc.
 Direct comments by the author
In direct characterization, the author flat out gives a reader detail regarding a character (you
can point to the detail regarding character traits in the text; when indirect characterization
is used the author simply presents the characters talking and acting and leaves the reader to infer
to motives and dispositions that lie behind what they say and do.
Character has an epiphany or experiences a change during the course of the work; gains a new
understanding
Characters that are not developed; are easily recognizable by their lack of complexity and are
usually created to emphasize a single important trait
antagonist
archetype
characterization
direct vs. indirect
characterization
dynamic
flat
A story’s sequence of events; the arrangement and interrelation of events which engages a
reader’s attention while also providing a framework for the exposition of the author’s message,
theme, or other such elements.
Stages of Plot:
 Exposition - introduces characters, setting, and the basic situation (the beginning of the
story)
 Initial or inciting incident – sets the conflict to be resolved
 Rising action – develops the conflict; develops character relationships and any subplots
 Climax – the high point of suspense or action
 Resolution – the end of the central conflict
 Denouncement – the events that occur after the resolution
A character, who by contrasts with the main character, serves to accentuate that character’s
distinctive qualities or characteristics.
Example: Cassius and Brutus
The mixture of situation and personality that impels a character to behave the way he or she
motivation
does
The most important or leading character in a work; usually identical to the hero or heroine, but
protagonist
not always; the protagonist may have both good and bad qualities.
Characters that have a level of complexity and depth we associate with real people and that have
round
been fully developed by the author
Character stays the same throughout the work from beginning to end
static
A type of character who regularly appears in certain literary forms; they are often stereotyped
stock
characters Example: Damsel in distress
Diction
Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or
effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate
foil
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or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose.
Abstract words signify things that cannot be perceived (Examples: honor, generosity, idea,
abstract/concrete
democracy).
Concrete words refer to perceptible things (Examples: a rose, a clap of thunder, the odor of violets).
The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
ambiguity
For example, “It was a funny affair.” (“Laughable” or “strange”?)
Clichés are trite (common) expressions, devalued by overuse (Examples: “dead as a doornail,”
cliché/euphemism/
“light as a feather,” “white as snow,” etc.).
jargon
Euphemism comes from the Greek for “good speech,” and is a more agreeable or less offensive
substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to
standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly
remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.
Jargon is technical language misused (Example: “Given the stockpile of innovative in-house
creativity for the for the generation of novel words . . .”)
The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing,
colloquial/slang
colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include
local or regional dialects.
Example: “We have a swell professor of mathematics.” or “Howdy, ya’ll!”
Connotation -- the non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning.
Connotation/
Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.
Denotation
Denotation refers to the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion,
attitude, or color.
Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might
be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.
Language linked to a particular region distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary;
dialect
language peculiar to a particular group, social class
Character’s voice; the conversation between two or more characters
dialogue
A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is
hyperbole
“overshoot.”) Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible.
(Example: “I haven’t seen you for ages!”). Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of
hyperbole is understatement.
A speech form or an expression that is not meant to be taken literally; a combination of words
idiom
functioning as a unit of meaning
Examples: “It’s raining cats and dogs!” or “Take the bus home.”
Levels of usage refer to the kind of situation in which a word is normally used. Consider three verbs
levels of usage /
that roughly mean the same thing: exacerbate, annoy, bug.
formal v. informal
Using big words to no purpose—except perhaps to show off.
pretentious
Example: “Upon receiving an answer in the affirmative, he proceeded to the bulletin board.”
Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone
tone
is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would
sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone.
Syntax (Sentence Structure)
The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can
differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple
choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay
section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.
Type/Length of
Sentence
balanced
Description of Sentence Types/Examples
A balanced sentence consists of two parts roughly equivalent in both length and significance and
divided by a pause. Balanced elements may repeat the same idea, show cause and effect, precedence
and subsequence, or any other relationships.
Example: “Visit either you like; they’re both mad.”
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asyndeton
centered
convoluted
fragment
freight-train
loose/cumulative
parallelism
parataxis
periodic
polysyndeton
segregating
A rhetorical term for a writing style that omits conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses; the
principal effect of asyndeton is to produce a hurried rhythm in the sentence
Example: “Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?”
(Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1 by William Shakespeare)
The main clause occupies the middle of the sentence and is both preceded and followed by
subordinate constructions. In a centered sentence, the chance of obscurity is reduced in a long
sentence if the main clause can be placed in the middle of the subordinate elements. Example:
“Having wanted to walk on the sea like St. Peter he had taken an involuntary bath, losing his miter
and the better part of his reputation.”
The main clause is split in two, opening and closing a sentence; the subordinate constructions intrude
between the parts of the main clause. Convoluted sentences establish strong emphasis by throwing
weight upon the words at the beginning and end of the sentence.
Example: “Now demons, whatever else they may be, are full of interest.”
The fragment is a single word, phrase, or a dependent clause standing alone as a sentence. In formal
writing fragments are generally a fault, though occasionally valuable for eye-catching and unusual
emphasis.
Example: “That nightmare was almost realized in Hitler’s totalitarian system. Almost, but not
quite.”
The freight-train style couples short independent clauses to make longer sequential statements. It is
useful when you wish to link a series of events, ideas, impressions, feelings, or perceptions as
immediately as possible, without judging their relative value or imposing a logical structure upon
them.
Example: “And the rain descended and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon the
house; and it fell: and great was the fall of it.”
The main clause falls at the beginning and is followed by the subordinate (dependent) clauses and
phrases. The number of ideas in a loose sentence is easily increased by adding phrases and clauses.
Examples:
“I found a large hall, obviously a former garage, dimly lit, and packed with cots.”
“7000 Romaine St. looks itself like a faded movie exterior, a pastel building with chipped art
modern detailing, the windows now either boarded up or paned with chicken-wire glass and, at the
entrance, among the dusty oleander, a rubber mat that reads WELCOME.”
Parallelism means that two or more words or constructions stand in an identical grammatical
relationship to the same thing. Parallelism is pleasant to hear and economical. Example: “We will
come when we are ready and when we choose.”
Independent clauses butted together without conjunctions (unlike the freight-train style) and using
semicolons or commas. Parataxis is used when fluidity of freight-train is not desired.
Example: “The habits of the natives are disgusting; the women hawk on the floor, the forks are
dirty; the trees are poor; the Pont Neuf is not a patch on London Bridge; the cows are skinny . . .”
Main clause or idea falls at the end of a sentence. The subordinate constructions precede the
main clause, which closes the sentence. The periodic sentence is emphatic. Delaying the principal
thought increases its importance.
Example: “Given a moist planet with methane, formaldehyde, ammonia, and some usable minerals,
all of which abound, exposed to lightning or ultraviolet radiation at the right temperature, life might
start almost anywhere.”
A stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to
achieve an artistic effect.
Example: “Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big
houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly–mostly–let them have their
whiteness.” (Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings)
A segregating style consists of relatively short, uncomplicated sentences. Short sentences are
strong, repetitive, and emphatic.
Example: “He writes, at most 750 words a day. He writes and rewrites. He polishes and repolishes. He works in solitude. He works with agony. He works with sweat.”
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triadic
active/passive voice
punctuation
A freight train sentence composed in three units is triadic. The triadic sentence provides a clearer
structural principle that is not open-ended (unlike the freight-train and parataxis styles) and tends to
be repetitive. Example: “Her showmanship was superb; her timing sensational; her dramatic
instinct uncanny.”
Grammar
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject
acts
Example: The dog bit the boy.
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the
subject is acted upon
Example: The boy was bitten by the dog.
How does the author punctuate the sentence and to what extent does the punctuation affect the
meaning?
Extra Terminology/Notes
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