Jonathan R. White
www.cengage.com/cj/white
Chapter 13:
Domestic Terrorism
SME
School
Examining the History of Domestic
Terrorism

Gurr
o
o
o
o
o

Terrorism is a tactic used by the weak to intimidate the strong
and in turn can be used by the strong to repress the weak.
Terrorism in the 19th century was primarily aimed at protecting
the status quo and economic environment.
Labor movement of the late 19th century was filled with
violence.
Frontier had its own form of violence.
Settlers developed their own brand of justice.
Character of domestic terrorism began to change in
the 1960s
o
o
Rooted in radical politics, nationalism, and the international
community’s experience with terrorism.
Domestic terrorism defined as a radical phenomenon.
Examining the History of Domestic
Terrorism
 Bell & Gurr – Political revolutionary groups and
nationalistic groups in the U.S. took their ideas
from terrorists in the Middle East and Asia.
 U.S. terrorist groups did not have the same
impact as their foreign counterparts:
o American public rejected the violence of
revolutionary groups.
o Popularity never fully achieved.
o Ended up as small bands of “social misfits” with
little effect on the political system.
Examining the History of Domestic
Terrorism
 According to Bell & Gurr – Two caveats with
their conclusion
o Although U.S. has avoided significant domestic
terrorism, criminals and political activists have used
terrorist tactics: bombing and hostage taking.
o Nationalistic terrorists from Puerto Rico were more
successful than revolutionaries at launching
terrorist campaigns.

They had Indigenous support
 Gurr outlines three types of terrorism
o Vigilante terrorism
o Insurgent terrorism
o Transnational terrorism
Examining the History of Domestic
Terrorism
 Vigilante Terrorism – growth of right-wing
extremists
o Ku Klux Klan, Christian Identity movement, and
other white supremacy organizations
 Insurgent Terrorism – aims to change political
policies through direct threats or action against
the government
o Black militants, white revolutionaries, Puerto Rican
nationalists
 Transnational Terrorism – non-indigenous
terrorists who cross national borders
o Jihadist movement inside the U.S.
Problem of Understanding Terrorism
in Law Enforcement
 American law enforcement is a localized affair
 Chiefs and sheriffs report to local boards
 State and federal agencies exercise law
enforcement power
 Agencies approach terrorism with their own
interpretations
Problem of Understanding Terrorism
in Law Enforcement
 Terrorism happens in other place
o Terrorism does not exist in most jurisdictions
 Police officers in the U.S. remain focused on local
issues
 Terrorism is too exotic for most agencies
 Classifying Terrorism as Normal Crime
o FBI labels the majority of domestic terrorist
activities under the common titles of crime in
the Uniform Crime Report (UCR)
o FBI became the only agency coordinating
thousands of U.S. police departments in a
counterterrorist direction
Problem of Understanding Terrorism
in Law Enforcement
 Uneven historical development
o Terrorists did not routinely targeted the U.S. until
1982

previous forms of terrorism before 1982 died from lack of
support
 Confusing hate crime with terrorism
o Hate crime is frequently used in conjunction with
domestic terrorism
 Hamm – hate crime is an illegal act
designed to target a particular social
group.
Classifying Terrorism in Criminal Justice
 A label appropriate for theoretical criminology does
not always lead to a response that solves an
immediate crime
o Police officers routinely handle terrorism even though they
call it by variety of names
 Two issues that must be kept in mind:
o Patrol officers generally the first responder.
o Investigation techniques used in large, sensationalized
terrorist incidents are the same used to investigate routine
crime.
 Counterterrorism depends on the fundamentals:
o
o
o
o
Good investigative skills
Good interviewing techniques
Understanding the context of the crimes investigated
Increased intelligence, (long term surveillance and
informant development.)
FBI Classification System
 In 1980s, FBI developed a general
classification system of domestic
terrorism
 Harris – summarized the FBI view:

o White leftists
o Puerto Rican leftists
o Black militants
o Right-wing extremists
o Jewish extremists
Types of groups were defined by location, and since
the terrorism tended to be geographically confined, it
did not seem to affect all local police agencies in the
same manner
FBI Classification System
 Modernly, FBI categories terrorism on
the basis of origin:
 Domestic Terrorism (DT)
o Political extremism involves violent left and rightwing extremists.
o “Single Issues” include violent activities associated
with debates over abortion, eco-terrorism, animal
rights, and genetic engineering.
o “Lone Wolves” included in DT when actions are
politically motivated.
 International Terrorism (IT)
o Composed of three subsets



State-sponsored terrorism
Clearly defined autonomous groups
Jihadists
Using the Classification System
 Smith & Roberts – place terrorist groups
into three broad categories
o Right-wing extremists
o Left-wing and single-issue terrorists
o International terrorists
 Factor separating the average criminal
from the average terrorist is motivation.
 Terrorists remain criminals
o Motivated by ideology, religion, or a political cause
o Engage in activities avoided by most criminals
Terrorist Profile
 Smith
o Characteristic of domestic terrorist:
 Native-born U.S. terrorists tend to be older than
international terrorists
 Foreign operatives working in the U.S. are also
older
o Comparison of left-wing and right wing
extremists
 With the exceptions of financing themselves, left
and right-wing terrorists are quite different
Left and Right-Wing Terrorists
 Ideology and beliefs about human nature
o
o
Left-wing favor Marxism
Right-wing terrorists are vehemently anti-Marxist and very
religious
 Economic views
o
o
Left-wing target economic status quo
Right-wing support economic system
 Geographic bases of support
o
o
Left-wing base themselves in urban environments
Right-wing base themselves in rural areas
 Selection of targets
o
o
Left-wing select symbolic targets of capitalism
Right-wing focus attacks on governmental authority
 Tactics
o
Both groups use similar terrorist tactics
Left-Wing Terrorists
 Left-wing terrorists have remained the same
from the 1960s to the present.
 Left-wing groups tended to act in a
coordinated fashion.
 Evidence indicated they were linked internally.
 U.S. left-wing terrorist groups include:
o May 19 Communist Organization (M19CO)
o United Freedom Front (UFF)
o Evan Mecham Eco-Terrorist International
Conspiracy (EMETIC)
o Animal Liberation Front (ALF)
o Earth Liberation Front (ELF)
American Terrorism Study
 Leaderless resistance
o Several domestic extremists advocated the
use of leaderless resistance.
o Incorporated in umbrella organizations such
as Hezbollah, Egyptian Islamic Jihad.
o Purpose of leaderless resistance is to fight
independent of other groups.
o Harder for L.E. to infiltrate.
American Terrorism Study
 Damphousse & Smith – three measurable
ideas
o If groups are truly leaderless, groups should be
smaller.

(Federal criminal cases should indicate that the number of
defendants per terrorist case declined.)
o If individuals are truly alone, they should be
committing more crimes as they can only rely on
themselves.
o If criminals are more committed, they should be
less likely to cooperate with the government.
American Terrorism Study
 Damphousse & Smith – found evidence that
may indicate leaderless resistance has affected
terrorist activity
o Size of domestic terrorist groups has been
decreasing since 1992

May also indicate that the federal government is prosecuting
cases differently
o Terrorists are committing more crimes
o Found less plea bargaining among suspects


May be due to either a change in federal plea bargaining; or
Lone wolves cannot make deals because they do no have
fellow criminals they can testify against
American Terrorism Study

48% of domestic terrorist attacks occur within 54
miles of a suspect’s residence.
o
o

Cells operate for an average of 470 days prior to an
incident.
o

Domestic terrorists tend to operate close to their home
base.
Most domestic terrorists are also recruited close to
home.
This provides a key for counterterrorist investigations.
When a group prepares for an attack, they commit
about four crimes prior to the attack 3 – 4 months
before the actual attack.
o
If law enforcement is aware of the types of crimes
terrorists commit – they are in a better position to stop
an attack.
Jihadists in America
 Jihadists appeared in the U.S. prior to the 9-11
attack and remain active today.
 Two types of Jihadist terrorist groups:
o International Jihadists


Come to the U.S. to launch an attack or engage in
criminal activities to support Jihadist terrorism (fund-rising)
Began with a structure but shifted into umbrella-style
networks.
o Homegrown Jihadist group

Americans who adopt the Jihadist philosophy
 Interaction of the two may create a third group
o A hybrid combination of homegrown and foreign
terrorists.
International Jihadists
 Emerson – reports research supporting the
existence of a Jihadist terrorist organization in
the U.S.
o Emerson’s research group, Investigative Project, has
gathered an array of reports


Many of the reports point to a Jihadist network inside U.S.
borders.
Homegrown Jihadists are appearing in the U.S.
 Causes a concern for “Islamophobia”
Homegrown Jihadists
 Wahhabi missionaries covertly preach
religious militancy in America’s prisons.
 (See Inmate Radicalization materials.)
 Homegrown Jihadists appear in different
areas.
 (Groups with limited understanding of Islam or
the Jihadist movement may become the a
domestic threat.)
o Self-recruited, self-motivated, and self-trained.
o Only direct contact with the Jihadists is through the
Internet.
Homegrown Jihadists
 Homegrown terrorists are produced in various
ways:
o Born in the U.S..
o Immigrate and find themselves alone.

Gravitate to the Jihad to find a purpose in life.
o Others leave the U.S. to join Jihadists overseas.
 Hybrid form:
o U.S. citizens recruited to train overseas.
o Black Muslims who were recruited away from their
faith to a traditional form of Islam and further
conversion to militancy.
o Normative U.S. Muslims radicalized in their mosques.
o Muslims radicalized in foreign countries and return to
the U.S.
Nationalistic Separatism: Puerto Rico
 A number of revolutionary organizations in Puerto
Rico embraced the nationalist terrorist campaign.
 Puerto Rican terrorists have engaged in terrorist
activities on U.S. soil since the 1950s.
o
o
Planned assassination of President Harry Truman.
Shooting at members of Congress in the House of
Representatives.
 The most notorious groups:
o
o
o
o
o
o
The Armed Forces of National Liberation (FANL)
The Macheteros
The Volunteers for the Puerto Rican Revolution (OVRP)
The Armed forces of Liberation (FARP)
The Guerilla forces of Liberation (GEL)
The Pedro Albizu Campos Revolutionary Forces (PACRF)
Right-Wing Violence

In the U.S. right-wing extremism has been around since the
1700s;
o

Anti-federal attitudes were common in the early 1800s.
o
o

Whiskey Rebellion (Boston Tea Party) .
Questioned the legitimacy of the federal government
Anti-Catholic, anti-Irish, and anti-immigrant
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
o
Nathan Bedford Forrest (founder)


o
KKK operated in three phases:




Intended to create an anti-unionist organization to preserve Southern
culture and traditions.
When KKK started terrorizing newly freed slaves, Forrest tried to disband
organization, but it was too late.
Hooded Knight Riders - terrorized African Americans to frighten them into
political and social submission.
1920s sought political legitimacy - became political.
Collapsed in the wake of a criminal scandal.
Present day is dominated by hate-filled rhetoric.
Christian Identity
 Blend of Jewish (Old Testament) and Christian
(New Testament) biblical passages.
 Based on premise God was white.
 Identity theology is based on conflict and hate.
 Christian Identity helped provide basis for
violence among the extremists.
o Demonize Jews


White people originated with God
Jews came from the devil
Contemporary Right-Wing Behavior, Belief,
and Tactics
 Right-wing extremism came to fruition around
1984 and has remained active since.
 Issues holding the movement together:
o Right-wing tends to follow one of the extremist
religions.

The Name of God is usually invoked
o The movement is dominated by belief in conspiracy
and conspiracy theories.

Followers feel they are losing economic status because of
sinister forces.
o Followers continue to embrace patriotism and
guns.

They want to arm themselves for a “holy war.”
Contemporary Right-Wing Behavior,
Belief, and Tactics
 Stern – Three issues rejuvenated the extremist
right:
o
o
o
The Brady Bill a law the limits the gun ownership
Ruby Ridge standoff between alleged survivalist and U.S.
federal law enforcement officers.
Branch Davidian (founder David Koresh) siege near Waco,
Texas.
 Religious messages changed in the 1990s:
o
Patriotism and anti-Semitism as strong as the Christian
Identity message
 Movement mutated after 9-11:
o
o
Following the pattern of international terrorist groups
members of right-wing groups organized chains or hubs.
Small groups operating autonomously engaging in more
individual violence.
Right-Wing Conspiracies, Militias, and
the Call to Arms

1990s Nordic Christianity took root in Michigan,
Wisconsin, Montana, and Idaho.
o
Claim to worship the Triune Christian Deity.
 Creatorism (World Church of the Creator) (Creativity
Movement)
o
o
o
o
Rejects Judaism and Christianity.
Claims the Creator left each race to fend for itself.
Call for a racial holy war (RAHOWA)
 The White Man’s Bible
 White people must struggle to defeat Jews and non-white race
Embracing the urban Skinheads movement
 Racial hatred and white supremacy
 Free-Wheeling Fundamentalists include in its ranks a
majority of right-wing extremists.
o
o
Federal and local governments are the enemy.
God will assist them in their confrontation of evil.
Right-Wing Conspiracies, Militias, and the
Call to Arms
 Militias thrive on conspiracy theories.
o Believe the U.S. government is leading the
country into a single world government.
 “New World Order”
o Militias are generally issue oriented:
 Groups gather around taxes, abortion, gun control,
and/or Christian Identity.
o Militias are almost always religious.
 Rely on violent passages of Christian scripture as
justification.
 Many militia members unable to cope with changes
in the modern world are frustrated.
•
May be extremists, - but not necessarily terrorists.
Right-Wing Conspiracies, Militias, and the
Call to Arms
 Paramilitary groups consist of armed civilian
militias organized into a military manner.
o Operate on different levels

i.e. Freemen of Montana
 Paramilitary groups come in a variety of
shapes and sizes.
o Most of their action is rhetorical.
 Third Position movement tried to unite leftwing radicals and right-wing reactionaries.
o Both share hatred of government and large
corporations as well as distrust of the media.

William Pierce as Andrew MacDonald: “Turner Diaries”,
“Hunter”
Decline of the Left and Rise of Single
Issues
 Left-wing terrorist groups dominated terrorism
in the U.S. from 1967-1985.
o Riley & Hoffman – left-wing groups engaged in
symbolic violence
 Intellectual elites controlled the movement .
o Lost its base when student activism began to
disappear from American academic life.
o (May see a resurgence from the “Occupy
Movement.”)
 Government actions, improved police tactics,
and lack of toleration for violent activities may
have contributed to the decline of left-wing
terrorism in the U.S. and Europe.
Decline of the Left and Rise of Single
Issues
 Left-wing terrorism transformed
o Ecological and animal-rights extremists have
united.




Variety of names
Myriad of extremist causes
Focus on particular causes
Individual harassment and property destruction
o Earth Liberation Front (ELF)

Monkey Wrench Gang
 Ecoterrorists
o From 1995-1999, damages totaled $28.8M
o Destruction of animal research laboratories,
sabotage against industrial equipment, raids
against farms, damage at auto dealerships.
o Ecology as surrogate religion
o Positions are contradictory
Black Hebrew Israelism


Black Hebrew Israelism is an African American version of
Christian Identity.
Claims black Africans were the original Israelites.
o
Hulon Mitchell Jr., leader, changed the name into Hebrew Jahveh ben
Jahveh




Nation of Yahweh
Demonized whites, called for their destruction
Internal group BROTHERHOOD required killing of the white person to
obtain a membership
Death Angels – selected members of the brotherhood, sent to kill whites
in Miami area
•

Were ordered to bring victims severed body parts of a victim to Mitchell as
proof that killing had occurred
Beheaded members who tried to leave
Anti-Abortion


Most pro-lifers denounce violence as contradictory to their beliefs.
Violent pro-lifers justify their actions in the same manner as other
political extremists.
o

Nice – abortion clinic bombings are related to several social factors:
o
o
o

Manual of the Army of God
Most occurred in expanding areas of population (urban areas).
Abortion bombers feel compelled to act by social and political
circumstances.
Individuals who kill abortion doctors felt murders were necessary to
make a political statement.
Abortion debate represents a political issue with positions identified
by militant extremes.
o
(Perfect example of “terrorism”)
Critical Engagement: Police Operations
and the Future
 Brian Jenkins
o The most effective action in preventing
terrorism is to gather local criminal intelligence
through police agencies committed to
community policing models.
o Information sharing
 Fusion centers and criminal intelligence units in
large police agencies are able to analyze possible
violent activities.
 The effectiveness of “crime analysis” increases
when officers are routinely gathering information
and forwarding it to through intelligence channels.