Students as Authors
The Student Authorship Project
www.writenow.ac.uk/student_authorship.html
Outline
• What does it mean to be the author of
something?
• What does a writer have to do to be the
author?
• Some cases of unintentional plagiarism
• What about being the author of a
university assignment?
Definitions
Author: “The person who creates a written work,
such as a book, story, article or the like…”
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/authors)
Authorship: “an explicit way of assigning
responsibility and giving credit for intellectual
work”
(http://www.hms.harvard.edu/integrity/authorship
.html)
Fay Weldon on authorship
“You write because you think you know
something that others don’t and you read
because you are hoping to find out
something. Writers have to provide that –
they have to add something.”
“I remember how exhausting it was getting
words on to a page. It’s like exercising a
muscle that you build up until it gets
easier”
(Times Higher Education Supplement, 22 Sept, 2006)
‘Authorial decisions’
• What the message is
• What secondary material to use
• How much importance or emphasis to put
on different parts
• How to interpret the material
• What words to use to express the ideas
• What conclusions to reach
A piece of journalistic-style writing
Eating disorders show how the culture of an affluent
society can damage the health of its most vulnerable
members. In western countries life is very stressful,
almost everyone is dissatisfied with their body, and
there is an epidemic of dieting. When emotionally
vulnerable people try to get some control over their
lives, the result can be anorexia or bulimia, which
were once rare disorders but are now increasingly
common. Psychological theory can explain what is
going on in people’s minds, but the problem won’t go
away until there is a change in western values and
culture.
What did that author decide?
• To announce the conclusions right at the
beginning of the piece
• To adopt a very bold style
• To place emphasis on cultural factors
• To present some ‘facts’ that will need
supporting with evidence
• To use certain words and phrases
…emotionally vulnerable people…
…epidemic of dieting…
…going on in people’s minds…
A piece of academic (psychology) writing
Eating disorders make up a relatively new category
of psychological disorders, and reflect the fact that
psychological or emotional problems can manifest
themselves as severe disturbances in eating
behaviour. The most prevalent of these disorders are
anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN).
These are normally considered as separate
disorders, although both are associated with an
obsessive fear of gaining weight and the individual’s
dissatisfaction with their own body shape (as
compared, for example, with media projected ideal
images of body shapes). Prior to the 1960s, both AN
and BN were relatively rare disorders, but have since
become considerably more prevalent in western
societies.
(From Davey, 2004, Complete Psychology, p. 586)
What did that author decide?
•
•
•
•
•
To begin in a much more measured way
To use a more cautious style
Not to reach such a strong conclusion
To focus more on psychological factors
To use more moderate words and phrases
…considerably more prevalent…
…psychological or emotional problems can
manifest themselves as…
…both associated with…
Being an author is difficult for
students
• Students know less about the subject
• They rely on a lot of other sources for your
material
• They are not sure what their own position
is
• They are probably writing under extreme
time pressure
Things students said about writing
“If you make a claim, you get an article or a book
that you can say proves your point. It’s like it’s
not off the top of my head, someone else has
found this.”
“They want everything backed up by previous
research and journal articles. You can’t just
make a point and leave it at that, you need to
show the evidence is out there. This has been
said and it is in this journal or this book.”
(From Norton et al. (2006). Writing essays in higher education: a
guide for students by students. Assessment Plus Project)
Things a tutor said about students’
writing
“I don’t think they get what they’re asked to
do…. I think they think they’ve got to
show they’ve read stuff and so they
paraphrase and plagiarize.”
(From Norton et al. (2006). Writing essays in higher education: a
guide for students by students. Assessment Plus Project)
Extract from a student essay
How do different psychological theories explain the
development of eating disorders?
“Bulimia patients typically binge when they encounter
stress and experience negative affect. Patients with
bulimia nervosa are low in self-esteem” (Garner, Olmstead
& Polivy, 1983, p. 1). “Many young women with an eating
disorder come from families that demand ‘perfection’ and
extreme self-control but do not allow expressions of
warmth or conflict” (Rosman & Baker, 1978, p. 1). “With
regard to bulimia, there may be a deficiency in the
neurotransmitter serotin, which plays a role in both mood
regulation and appetite” (Hilgard’s Introduction to
Psychology, p. 1).
(From www.assessmentplus.net)
What a student said about using quotes
“I think it is sometimes difficult to choose exactly
what quote you’re going to put in and also kind
of like making it relevant, as you said, and sort of
putting in why you’ve chosen that particular
quote, because I know that the feedback I’ve
had on my essays – ‘don’t use so many quotes
and establish why you use them’, basically.
‘What was the point? Why was what that person
said better than something else?’”
(From Norton et al. (2006). Writing essays in higher education: a
guide for students by students. Assessment Plus Project)
Is this an improvement?
How do different psychological theories explain the
development of eating disorders?
Bulimia has been associated with stress and negative
emotional states, and Garner et al (1983) claimed that many
patients with bulimia have low self-esteem. Family factors
may also be important, especially in terms of the demands
they may place on young women and the opportunities they
provide for expressing emotions. For example, demanding
perfection and self control, but not allowing expressions of
warmth or conflict, were said to characterise the families of
many young women with eating disorders (Rosman & Baker,
1978). There is also evidence that neurophysiological factors
are important mechanisms in the development of eating
disorders. For example, deficiencies in serotonin, which
regulates both mood and appetite, may be part of the cause
of bulimia (Hilgard, 1999).
Author of novel accused of plagiarism
HISTORIANS APPEAL DA VINCI
PLAGIARISM VERDICT
DAN BROWN's bestseller THE DA VINCI
CODE is to face the courts again as two
historians appeal against the not guilty
verdict in the novel's plagiarism case earlier
this year (APR06). A judge previously ruled
the central themes which the historians said
Brown had copied from their 1982 book
THE HOLY BLOOD AND THE HOLY
GRAIL were "too general" to be protected
by copyright law even if they had been
reproduced.
http://contactmusic.com/news.nsf/article/historians%20appeal%20da%20vinci%
20plagiarism%20verdict_1002177
Labour’s ‘dodgy dossier’ on Iraqi WMD
Government dossier: (page 13), published Jan 2003
"Saddam appointed, Sabir 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Duri as head during the 1991
Gulf War. After the Gulf War he was replaced by Wafiq Jasim al-Samarrai.
After Samarrai, Muhammad Nimah al-Tikriti headed Al-Istikhbarat alAskariyya in early 1992 then in late 1992 Fanar Zibin Hassan al-Tikriti was
appointed to this post.
These shifting appointments are part of Saddam's policy of balancing
security positions. By constantly shifting the directors of these agencies, no
one can establish a base in a security organisation for a substantial period
of time. No one becomes powerful enough to challenge the President."
http://www.channel4.com/news/2003/02/week_1/06_dossier.html
From a PhD thesis on the web
al-Marashi document: Section: "MILITARY INTELLIGENCE“, published
Sept 2002 - relevant parts have been underlined
Saddam appointed, Sabir ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Duri(80) as head of Military
Intelligence during the 1991 Gulf War.(81) After the Gulf War he was replaced
by Wafiq Jasim al-Samarrai.(82)
After Samarrai, Muhammad Nimah al-Tikriti(83) headed Military Intelligence in
early 1992(84) then in late 1992 Fanar Zibin Hassan al-Tikriti was appointed
to this post.(85) While Fanar is from Tikrit, both Sabir al-Duri and Samarrai are
non-Tikriti Sunni Muslims, as their last names suggest.
Another source indicates that Samarrai was replaced by Khalid Salih alJuburi,(86) demonstrating how another non-Tikriti, but from the tribal alliance
that traditionally support the regime holds top security positions in Iraq.(87)
These shifting appointments are part of Saddam’s policy of balancing security
positions between Tikritis and non-Tikritis, in the belief that the two factions
would not unite to overthrow him. Not only that, but by constantly shifting the
directors of these agencies, no one can establish a base in a security
organization for a substantial period of time, that would challenge the
President.(88)
Psychologist accused of plagiarism
“He had taken paragraphs from my work,
word for word” – Thomas Blass
“Journal retracts article after US scholar
complains”
“Raj Persuad says credits ‘inadvertently
omitted’”
(Guardian, 7 November, 2005 )
Raj Persaud’s explanation
‘I am happy to apologise for this error, which
occurred whereby when I cut and pasted
the original copy, the references at the end
were inadvertently omitted. We only
became aware of the error after
publication’
‘He [Persaud] said he didn’t see the final
version before it goes to press, and said
the subeditors must have taken out the
quotation marks and citation at the bottom’
(Guardian, 7 November, 2005)
The verdict
‘[Persaud] admitted plagiarism but denied claims he
had been dishonest …’ (Guardian, 20-6-08)
‘He [Persaud] told the GMC: “I realise I should have
been much more careful when I started writing the
book. At the time, given the stress I was under,
given the deadlines and my other work, I thought I
was adequately attributing work”’ (Times, 21-6-08)
“[Persaud] brought his profession into disrepute by
cutting and pasting experts’ papers into his articles
and a book, the General Medical Council found
yesterday” (Guardian, 20-6-08)
Plagiarism expert accused of
plagiarism in report about plagiarism!
“An expert on plagiarism has himself been accused of
copying material ‘verbatim’ from another source without
properly acknowledging it.
The allegations have divided the UK’s plagiarism experts
over what actually constitutes plagiarism and how strictly
even minor lapses should be punished.
In a further twist, the academic paper under the spotlight is
itself about the overzealous policing of plagiarism in
higher education.”
(Times Higher Education Supplement, 16 June, 2006 )
Students helping each other
• Group work often means students work closely
together
• It is fine to collaborate in the preparation for a
written assignment
• But there must be one author for each piece of
writing submitted
• Make sure the written work you submit is you
own
Authorship and essays
• Essays are the most traditional form of
university writing
• Risk of accidental plagiarism is probably
greater than for any other type of
assignment
Authorship and critical reviews
• Critical reviews begin with a secondary
source – the ‘target’ article
• Decide how much of that you want to
include in your review
• Where will the rest of the material come
from?
Authorship and problem-based
learning (PBL) assignments
• PBL is sometimes used to prevent
plagiarism
• The starting point is usually a case
description
• Care still needs to be taken
– When using the results of your research on
the background issues
– If you are working on the same case as your
friend
Authorship and your research
project
• Don’t get accused of plagiarism in your
final piece of work
• Make sure every section is your own
writing
• Just because you are describing an
original study does not mean you can
reproduce someone else’s writing in your
introduction or discussion
Tips on being a genuine author
• Think about what your own position
(opinion) is before you start writing
• When working from other sources:
– Read, think, then put the book or journal on
one side before writing about it in your work
– Think about what you have added to the
points made in the source work
– Use the source material to support what you
are saying in your work – refer to it to make a
point of your own
More tips…
• When including quotations from other
work:
– Think about what point you are making with
the quote
– Use the quotation to make a point of your own
– Keep the quotation as short as possible
– Make sure the other person’s words are in
quotation marks
– Make sure you indicate the source
Final tips
• When you think you have finished, ask
yourself…
– What decisions did I take?
– How many of the sentences did I compose?
– Can I take responsibility for this writing?
– Can I really take the credit for it?
• If the answers are not clear, perhaps this
version is not your final draft …
Useful web sites
The Assessment Plus project web site, with many downloadable resources
for student and staff on writing for assessment:
http://www.assessmentplus.net
An interactive site on essay writing at James Cook University, Australia:
http://www.jcu.edu.au/studying/services/studyskills/writing/index.htm
A site at the Open University with advice on writing and assessment
generally: http://www.open.ac.uk/study-strategies/
A site at the University of Teesside with a wide range of advice on essays,
exams, academic writing and plagiarism: http://dissc.tees.ac.uk/
Reference Psyte, an excellent website on referencing for psychology
students: http://www2.hud.ac.uk/hhs/ref_psyte/
The Royal Literary Fund’s essay writing advice:
http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/essayguide.cfm
A guide to using English for academic purposes:
http://www.uefap.com/vocab/vocfram.htm
The Institute of Education’s site with advice on writing essays, reports,
critical reviews and dissertations:
http://www.ioe.ac.uk/caplits/writingcentre/index.htm
Write Now, a web site for students devoted to writing for assessment:
http://www.writenow.ac.uk/
Books about writing for students
Clanchy, J. (1997). Essay writing for students: a practical guide. Melbourne: Addison Wesley
Longman.
Cottrell, S., (2003) The Study Skills Handbook. (2nd Ed.) Palgrave.
Creme, P. & Lea, M.R. (1997). Writing at university: a guide for students, 2nd ed. Buckingham:
Open University.
Fairbairn, G.J. & Fairbairn, S. (2001). Reading at University: A Guide for Students.
Buckingham: Open University.
Fairbairn, G.J. & Winch, C. (1996). Reading, Writing and Reasoning: A Guide for Students.
Buckingham: Open University.
Greetham, B. (2001). How to write better essays. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Hennessy, B. (2002). Writing an Essay: Simple Techniques to Transform Your Coursework and
Examinations (Student Handbooks). Oxford: How To Books.
Levin, P. (2004). Write Great Essays! Reading and Essay Writing for Undergraduates and
Taught Postgraduates. Buckingham: Open University.
Lewis, M., & Reinders, H., (2003) Study Skills for Speakers of English as a Second Language.
Palgrave.
Norton, L. et al. (2006). Writing essays in Higher Education: A Guide for Students by Students.
Available from http://www.writenow.ac.uk/assessmentplus/
Peck, J. & Coyle, M. (2005). The student’s guide to writing: grammar, punctuation and spelling.
Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Peck, J. & Coyle, M. (2005). Write it right: a handbook for students. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Redman, P. (2001). Good Essay Writing: a Social Sciences Guide. London: Sage.
Turley, R.M. (2000). Writing Essays: A Guide for Students in English and the Humanities.
London: Routledge.
Guides to writing for psychology
students
Collins, S.C. & Kneale, P. (2001). Study skills for
psychology students: a practical guide. Chapter 9.
Effective essay skills.
Heffernan, T. M., (2006). A Student’s Guide to Studying
Psychology. (3rd Ed.) Psychology Press.
Parrott, L. (1999). How to write psychology papers (2nd Ed).
Harlow, Longman.
Scott, J. M., Koch, R., Scott, G. M., & Garrison, S. M.,
(2002) The Psychology Student Writer’s Manual.
Prentice Hall.
Stevenson, A. (2001). Studying Psychology. Palgrave.