Cognition
(Memory & Thought)
Chapter 11
Our filing system
 Pledge of Allegiance, Indians starting line-up, 3rd grade,
Lines from your favorite movie, State capitals, First love
 Going beyond memory, how do we think?
 How do we solve problems?
 How do we store memories?
Memory
 Memory- capacity to register, store, and
recover information over time (learning)
 Cognition – all the mental activities
associated with thinking, knowing and
remembering information
 Metacognition - thinking about how you think
 Introspection - used by the Structuralists in late
1800s to uncover details of human thought process
Theories of Memory
 Molecular Theory (James McConnell)
 Memory stored in RNA molecules
 EX: Flatworm experiment
McConnell made the astonishing discovery that memory has an identifiable
chemical basis. He trained flatworms to run mazes, and noted how long it took
to do so.
Then McConnell took the trained worms and ground them up and fed
them to untrained worms. The untrained worms learned to run the maze a lot
faster than the original worms had, apparently demonstrating that there was
some sort of information in the trained worms that survived being ground up and
ingested. The hypothesis was that the information was somehow encoded
in RNA molecules, and could be physically transferred from one
individual to another.
Bummer
 McConnell’s research has never been
replicated
 He did create quite a media frenzy and many well
known psychologists were intrigued by his original
findings.
 The frenzy quickly died down when no one was able to
replicate the same results
Information Processing
Model
 This is information processing model: compare your
mind to a computer
 3 steps
 Encoding – input received from our sensory receptors
 Storage – retain info in our brains for sometime (range: 1
second to a lifetime)
 Retrieval - when needed we can access it
Cognition = Memory
 Memory can be affected by how well we focus our
attention
 Your motivation
 How much you practice
 Your state of consciousness when while storing and
recalling information
 Interference from other events
Your Attention Please
Anyone been feeling lost and in a haze?
Smart phones, twitter wars, and ear buds are constantly diverting your attention,
resulting in a failure to properly encode information 
 Focused attention – trying to attend to one task over another

vs.
 Divided attention –successfully attending to two complex tasks at once

You might think you are good at dividing your attention…but psych
research has proven otherwise time and time again

Dichotic listening experiments, pg 128

Remember this, next time you drive while reading the latest tweets
Levels of Processing:
Encoding Stage
 Robert Lockhart and Fergus Craik –
 Levels of Processing Model (2 Levels Shallow & Deep)
 How long and how well we remember information depends on how
deeply we process the information when we encode it
 A. Shallow Processing - we assign NO relevance to
information we store at this level, includes superficial
sensory information that emphasizes physical
characteristics, like lines, curves or sensory stimuli
 we see cars pass as we wait to cross the road but we would be able to
recall the makes or models if asked
Levels of Processing:
Encoding Stage
 Deep processing – when we attach meaning to
information and create associations between new and
old information/memories
 Semantic Encoding – deeper level, emphasizes the
meaning of verbal input, can be passed to short or long
term memory

Best way to remember a new person’s names at a social event
Creating associations between new memory and old
memories is called – Elaboration
Processing information deemed important or relevant more
deeply by relating the new information to ourselves, making it
easier to recall – self-reference effect or self-referent encoding
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory
 We have 3 different memory systems characterized by
time frames
 1) Sensory memory – memory system that holds external
events from the senses for up to a few seconds
 2) Short-term memory – “working memory”, 20 seconds
before forgotten, capacity is 7 + or - 2
 3) Long-term memory – relatively permanent storage
with unlimited capacity
Simon Anyone?
http://www.kidsmathgamesonline.com/memory/simon.html
Vocab Assignment #1
 Define all terms on slides 14-19
 Expect these terms on your daily quiz
 List them on notebook paper in the same chunked
groups as they appear on the slides
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory Cont.
 1) Sensory Memory: TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW!
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Visual encoding
Iconic memory
Acoustic encoding
Echoic memory
Selective attention
Automatic processing
Parallel processing
Effortful processing
Feature extraction
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory Cont.
 2) Short Term Memory: TERMS TO DEFINE AND
KNOW! Think of examples for each also!
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Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Chunking
Mnemonic devices –
Method of loci –
Peg word system –
Many of the above strategies help convert info from short term to
long-term
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory Cont.
 3) Long Term Memory: TERMS TO DEFINE AND
KNOW! Think of examples for each also!
 Subdivided into 2 Types:
 1) Explicit memory (or declarative)

Semantic memory

Episodic memory
 2) Implicit memory (or non-declarative)

Procedural memory
Organization of Memories
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples for
each also!
 1)HierarchiesConcepts Prototypes 2) Semantic Networks 3) Schemas Script4) Connectionism -
Related Memory Terms
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of
examples for each also!
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) –
 Neural network or Parallel processing model
Biology of Long-term
Memory
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples for
each also!
 Long-term Potentiation (LPT)
 Flashbulb memory
 Thalamus
 Hippocampus
 Anterograde amnesia
 Retrograde amnesia
 Cerebellum
Retrieval and Memory
 Elizabeth Loftus - Confabulation & Eye Witness
Testimony
 60 Minutes
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nbARxiM0W_Q
Vocab Assignment #2
 Define all the listed (undefined) terms on slides 22-30
 Be prepared to see these on your next daily quiz
Retrieving Memories
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples
for each also!
 Retrieval – the process of getting information out of
storage
 Recognition
 Recall
 Reconstruction
Ebbinghaus
 Summarize Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve Theory (pg131)
 Also define these terms related to his research:
 savings method
 overlearning effect
 serial positioning effect
 primacy effect
 recency effect
Retrieval Cues
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples for
each also!
 Retrieval Cues Priming Encoding specificity principle  Context- dependent memory effect Mood congruence –
 State-dependent -
 Distributed practice  Massed practice -
Reconstruction
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples for
each also!
 Repression – (Freud)
 Confabulation
 Summarize Elizabeth Loftus’ Theory on Confabulation (eye
witness testimony)
 Misinformation effect
 Misattribution error
Retrieval + Interference =
Forgetting
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of
examples for each also!
 Forgetting – the inability to retrieve information
 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
 Interference
 Proactive interference
 Retroactive interference
Combat Forgetting
 Overlearning –
 Elaborative rehearsal –
 Differs from maintenance rehearsal which is just
utilizing STM to keep info 20 seconds
Language
 Phonemes
 Morphemes
 Grammar
 Syntax
 Semantics
Language Acquisition
 Babbling
 Holophrastic speech
 Telegraphic speech
 Overgeneralizations (over-regularization)
Theory on Language
Acquisition
 Nature (nativist)
vs
Nurture____________
 Noam Chomsky
/
Behaviorist, like Skinner
 Language acquisition
device
/
Shaping, reinforcement
 Critical Period - Lenneberg
Genie the feral child
Who was Genie?
 Understanding Genie = Understanding
language development and the critical period
Theory on Language
Acquisition
 Social Interactivist Perspective- most psychologist and
linguists believe our acquisition of language is a combo
of both the nature and nurture side of the debate
 Bio and Cognitive Psychologists Have proven we have development of dense neuron
connections during he 1st few years of life = critical to
master language
Theory on Language
Acquisition
Benjamin Whorf (linguist)
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis - language guides and
determines our thinking & perceptions
* largely discredited and controversial
Most researchers and theorist believe the opposite:
our experiences, perceptions, and thinking guide our
language acquisition
Wolfgang Kohler:
____?____ Learning
Kohler: Insight Learning

Kohler attempted to prove that animals arrive at a solution through insight rather than
trial and error.

Kohler's experiments consisted of placing chimps in an enclosed area and presenting
them with a reward that was out of reach, such as bananas.

In one experiment, Kohler placed bananas outside Sultan's cage and two bamboo
sticks inside his cage. Neither stick was long enough to reach the bananas so the only
way to reach the bananas was to put the sticks together. After some contemplation,
Sultan put the two sticks together and created a stick long enough to reach the bananas
outside his cage.

Another study involved bananas suspended from the roof. The chimps first tried to
knock them down by using a stick. Then, the chimps learned to stack boxes on top of
one another to climb up to the bananas.
Wolfgang Kohler: Insight
Learning
 Kohler described three properties of insight learning:
 First, insight-learning is based on the animal perceiving
the solution to the problem.
 Second, insight-leaning is not dependent on rewards.
 Third, once a problem has been solved, it is easier to
solve a similar problem.
Vocab Assignment #3
 Define terms on slides 38- 41
 Expect to see them in your next daily quiz
Problem Solving
 Algorithm
 Heuristic
 Insight learning – WOLFGANG KOHLER &
chimpanzees (co-founder of Gestalt Psych)
 Trial and Error Approach
 Inductive reasoning
 Deductive reasoning
Obstacles to Problem
Solving
 Fixation
 Mental set
 Functional fixedness
 Availability heuristic
 Representative heuristic
 Framing
 Anchoring effect
Biases
 Confirmation Bias
 Belief perseverance
 Belief bias
 Hindsight bias
 Overconfidence bias
Creativity
 Creativity
 Incubation
 Convergent thinking
 Divergent thinking
 Brainstorm
Let’s Review Some
Key Terms
Sensory Memory:
 Echoic Memory
 Holds auditory information for approximately 1 second
 EX: Teacher asks OFF TASK student a question
 Iconic memory –
 Form of sensory memory that holds visual information
Long-Term Memory:
2 Types
 Explicit (declarative) Memory – conscious memory we
recall as needed (facts, events)
 Example- episodic, semantic
Implicit (nondeclarative) Memory – unintentional
memories, don’t realize we know it until we do it
Example – procedural
Explicit Memory: 2 Types
 1. Semantic Memory
 Memory of factual knowledge about the world, concepts,
definitions, and grammar
 2. Episodic Memory
 Memories of one’s personal experiences in life
 EX: 1st date & kiss, personal diary
Implicit Memory
 Procedural Memory
 Memories of actions, skills, operations, not requiring
conscious recollection
 ITS AUTOMATIC
 EX: Throwing a ball, riding a bike, tying a tie, juggling,
driving, muscle memory
Unique Type of Memory
Yet another specific type of memory:
Eidetic Memory (“photographic memory”)
 Retain detailed visual image for several minutes, or
longer, like Sheldon Cooper
Review: What type of memory do
these terms fall under?
 Selective Attention
 Feature Extraction
 Effortful Processing
 Parallel processing
 Automatic Processing
Review: What type of memory do
these terms fall under?
 Chunking
 Rehearsal
Stages of Memory
Short-term Memory to
HOW can we do this?
Chunking
Rehearsal
Mnemonic device
Long-term Memory
Mnemonic Devices
 Peg word
 Narrative chaining
 Rhyming
 Song
 Method of loci
Stages of Memory
 Levels of processing
 Maintenance rehearsal (shallow processing)
 Repetition
 Elaborative Rehearsal (Deep processing)
 Making associations between new & old information
Stages of Memory
 50 states in 1 minute
 Activity
 On a separate/scrap piece of paper
 List the 50 states!
 You have 1 minute, GO!
Stages of Memory
 Encoding/Retrieving strategies in LTM
 A very simple illustration of the fact that people encode and
search for information in predictable ways
 Please read lists of states, in order originally written.


Familiar patterns

Alphabetical order

Region

Similarity of name (“New”)
Familiar ways to individual (Systematic)

Where one has lived, a significant event took place, NFL teams
Chunking?
 Here is a list of numbers
 17761234201543212323
Now look at the list one more time
1776 1234 2015 4321 2323
 CHUNKING MAKES SENSE
Stages of Memory
 3. Long-Term Memory
 Storing almost unlimited amounts of information over
long periods of time
 LTM information organized by categories and features
Money, Money, Money
 We have saved, held, and spent money our
whole lives. You should be an expert.
 Whose portrait is on a $10?
 Is Lincoln facing the left or right on the
penny?
Long-Term Memory
Exercise
 Whose portrait is on the $10 bill… Hamilton
 Is Lincoln facing to the right
or left on the penny?
Retrieval of Information
 Key to retrieval is organization and deep processing
 Recognition - identification of something with priming or
cues present (multiple choice)
 Recall- retrieval of information with no cue (fill in blank)
 Identify previously learned information

Can you recall the 7 dwarfs?

What if I show you a picture (provide a cue), can you
recognize all 7?
Retrieval of Information
Confabulation – Elizabeth Loftus
 Unconsciously filling in memory gaps
 Eye witness testimony – what mistakes did Jennifer make
when picking Ronald Cotton?
Misinformation effect – when we incorporate misleading
information into our memory of an event
Misattribution error – forgetting what really happened, or
distortion of information at retrieval – we confuse the source
of the information (“source amnesia”)
Remember developmental the theory of
cognition?
 Schemas – Piaget term (remember assimilation and
accommodation too?)
 Learned generalizations and preconceptions about
objects, events, and people
 A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize &
interpret information
 Created based on expectations by past experiences
Schemas & Constructive
Memory
 Rumor Chain
 Does long-term memory get distorted during encoding or
retrieval by prior knowledge, particularly by schemas
about the world, which include gender role expectations
and other bias?
 VOLUNTEERS anyone?
Rumor Chain Story
 A Boeing 747 had just taken off from the Dallas-Fort Worth
Airport for Chicago when a passenger near the rear of the
aircraft announced that the plane was being taken over by the
People’s Revolution Army for the liberation of the oppressed.
The hijacker then held a 22-caliber pistol to the head of James
Buckner, a flight attendant, and forced him to open the door
to the cockpit. There, the hijacker confronted the pilot,
Melanie Adams, and ordered her to change course for
Mexico. The pilot radioed the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport Air
Traffic Control Center to report the situation, but then
suddenly hurled the microphone a the hijacker, who fell
backward through the open cockpit door and onto the floor,
where angry passengers took over from there. The plane
landed back at the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport a few minutes
later and the hijacker was arrested.
Rumor Chain Story

Errors made in story?

RECONSTRUCTION – retrieval can be distorted by adding dropping
or changing details to complete the picture or story

Did the description get shorter?

Were details left out? (Name of Airport, terrorist group)

This is called leveling

Misinformation effect - incorporating misleading information in to
memories

Confabulation – combing and substituting memories from events other
than the one you’re trying to remember

The descriptions will reflect the tellers’ schemas

EX: Pilots are men, women are flight attendants
Read the following words aloud as a class.
Await further directions
 Boy
Niece
Sister
 Dolls
Dance
Aunt
 Female
Beautiful
Daughter
 Young
Cute
Hair
 Dress
Date
Pretty
Primacy & Recency Effect
 How many people recalled the word “girl” =
reconstructive memory!
 Serial Positioning Effect





Primacy (best at the beginning of the list)
Recency (best at the end of the list)
The work of Herman Ebbinghaus
Relearning effect
Overlearning effect
Forgetting
 Forgetting
 Inability to retrieve information in Long Term Memory
 Herman Ebbinghaus- “Forgetting Curve”

Steep decline initially then gradual decline

Conducted one of the 1st studies of retention and forgetting in
the late 1800s. He learned a large number of nonsense
syllables, 3-letter combinations that had no meaning, studying
the material until he could recite it perfectly. He then, tested
himself on what he remembered after certan periods of time
had elapsed.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting
Curve
Forgetting
 Interference (Inhibition) Theory
 Memories inhibit retrieval of other memories
 Proactive Interference

Prior info inhibits retrieval of new memories, can’t remember the
new

( you move, asked your address you give old one)
Retroactive Interference
 New inhibits retrieval of prior memories, cant remember older
info

(insert example here)
Repression
 Freudian Defense Mechanism
 Unpleasant experiences are kept out of consciousness
and cannot be retrieved voluntarily
 EX: False accusation based in repressed memories
Amnesia
 Causes
 Organic: Head injury physical trauma or disease
 Rapid forgetting
 New information fades from memory with a few minutes
 Old memories, such as those from childhood, are NOT
retained
 Permanent
Amnesia
 Loss of one’s identity and personal history
without obvious brain injury
 Rare
 Can’t recall past memories and have to start
new lives
 Never able to store new memories
There are two types: anterograde & retrograde
Amnesia
 Anterograde

Inability to form new memories, can’t put them into explicit memory

Damage to hippocampus

People find themselves constantly forgetting information, people or events after a
few seconds or minutes

Data does not transfer successfully from their conscious short-term memory into
permanent long-term memory

“50 First Dates”
 Retrograde

Memory loss for a segment of past usually around injury or trauma

The loss of pre-existing memories to conscious recollection

The person may memorize new things that occur after the onset of amnesia

Unable to recall some or all of their life or identity prior to the onset.

“Overboard”
Anterograde & Retrograde
Brain Diseases
 Alzheimer’s
 Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative brain disease that
gradually erodes an individual’s memory, intellectual abilities
and personality.
 During the early stages, the most obvious symptom is an
inability to learn and remember new information.
 In advanced stages, the ability to think, speak or perform such
basic tasks as getting dressed or eating is severely impaired. The
time between diagnosis and death typically ranges from seven to
10 years.
Maze