5.4 – Ancient Greek writers:
Plutarch: What we know.
Plutarch was a Greek biographer who wrote in the 2nd century AD for a Roman
audience. Plutarch’s purpose was to write a moral history comparing the lives of
famous Greeks and Romans.
Plutarch provides a comprehensive account of Spartan society and attributes
Spartan Eunomia or good order to the mystical figure Lycurgus. Plutarch gives a
valuable insight into Lycurgan reforms including:
Focus, shows the impact that Lycurgus reforms had on Sparta.
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His 3 major reforms. (Gerousia / 9000 lots / Syssitia) (Chapter 10)
The Great Rhetras or Laws (No written legislation / Extravagance /
Campaigns against the same foe.
Spartan Government.
Spartan Education (14)
Marriage (15)
Spartan customs – traditions and discipline. (16)
Poetry (21)
Problems and or considerations regarding Plutarch:
The context time period, purpose, audience and the sources used impact the
reliability of Plutarch’s account. Plutarch wrote some200 years after the fall of
Sparta.
 Plutarch writes a moral account of Spartan men and compares them with
Great Roman leaders. HE IS NOT WRITING A HISTORY.
 Selective account in how he portrays Spartan lives. Plutarch clearly
admires Lycurgus and the society he created. Consequently his portrayal
of Sparta is overwhelmingly positive.
 Lycurgus is portrayed as a Utopian model of Spartan Society. Everything
good is attributed to Lycurgus.
 Plutarch never concedes himself that Lycurgus maybe mythical.
 His wording inspires distrust.
 Narration is dominated by Kings lives. He does not cover the full scope of
Spartan Society.
 His writing give only a small insight into Spartan Society creating
limitations in insight and authenticity.
 Political system is clouded in ambiguity – Gerousia is accounted for as a
Lycurgan reform but not Ephors.
Xenophon:
Xenophon was an Athenian general who unlike any other Greek writer lived
within Sparta for several years. He personally experienced the Spartan way of
life including the syssition and the Agoge. He was an eyewitness account. At face
value this make Xenophon an extremely valuable historian who provides a
wealth of detail not found in any other account. However a close examination of
his contextual experience raises doubt over the reliability and authenticity of his
account.
Xenophon was an Athenian who fought for Sparta during the Peloponnesian war.
He was subsequently exiled from Athens and was offered sanctuary by Sparta
under King Agiselius and was given land. From here Xenophon wrote the
constitution of the Lacedomonians in praise of Sparta.
His narration or description of Spartan customs is seemingly accurate. This may
be due to his first hand experience of customs such as the agoge. (His son went
through the Agoge.)
What Xenophon tells us?
 Xenophon gives great insight into Spartan way of life, its military function,
laws and social institutions. Xenophon’s own son participated in the
Agoge.
 Procreation. (1)
 Education (This is extensive and covers the education of young boys and
girls.) (S 2.8)
 Spartan way of life – Views on material wealth – the role and function of
the syssitia. (5) (S2.6)
 The ownership of children.
 Lycurgus (8/9) (S2.1)
 Spartan Government: (10) (2.3)
 The Army (11- S2.5)
 Camps – Training and the Syssitia. (2.6)
 Kings – (15 – 2.2)
How to treat Xenophon: Considerations
Xenophon has been labelled a Laconophile or Spartan lover. However, critics of
Xenophon claim immediate bias through his narration which is unwavering in its
praise for all things Sparta.
 It is argued that Xenophon oversells Spartan life.
 Omitting negative aspects of Spartan society. Helots killing / Kypteai
 Xenophon admires the education. Comparative study through his own
experiences in Athens.
 The society that Xenophon portrays would have been vastly different to
the one that Lycurgus created or envisaged.
 Comparative study – But always holds Sparta as dominant state.
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Xenophon may have had alterior motives for his writings. Criticism of all
things Athenian.