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Understanding and Analysis relevant
psychological theories and models
demonstrate your application of relevant
psychological theory and models in the
clinical or organisational context
respond appropriately to ethical issues
synthesise national policy and guidance with
the clinical material
Bobbie, Caroline, Jason and Jo
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Introduction and definitions
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Neuroanatomy
Frontal lobe – overview
Orbitofrontal damage
Brain injury –terms
Associated head injury difficulties
Executive difficulties
Frontal lobe specific difficulties
BADS
Epidemiology
Critique
Psychological Issues
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Emotional impact
Behavioural difficulties
Systemic issues
Theoretical stance
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Interventions
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Functional analysis
Behavioural interventions
Aims of cognitive rehabilitation
Group work &systemic support
Organisational issues
• National policy& guidance
• Ethical issues
INTRODUCTION &
DEFINITIONS
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Emotional control centre and home to personality, with damage
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Area of brain where damage presents with broadest range of
symptoms (Kolb & Milner, 1981)
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Involved in motor function, spontaneity, problem solving,
memory, judgement, language, initiation, social and sexual
behaviour and impulse control
◦ Damage can affect flexibility of thinking, problem solving, attention and
memory even following a ‘good’ recovery from a TBI (Stuss et al., 1985)
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MRI studies identified frontal as most common region of injury
following mild to moderate traumatic brain injury (Levin et al.,
1987)
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Area of the brain
associated with:
◦ regulating planning
behaviour
◦ sensitivity to reward and
punishment
◦ ToM
◦ sensory integration
◦ representing the affective
value of reinforcers, and
decision making &
expectation
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Destruction of the OFC
through acquired brain
injury typically leads to a
pattern of disinhibited
behaviour.
Bechara et al,1994; Kringelbach, 2005; Schore, 2000;
Stone, Baron-Cohen, & Knight, 1998; Snowden et al 2001
Types of injury:
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Acquired brain injury (ABI)
“Damage to the brain, which occurs after birth and is not related to a congenital or a degenerative disease. These
impairments may be temporary or permanent and cause partial or functional disability or psychosocial
maladjustment .”
The World Health Organization (1996)
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An injury that occurs since birth
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stroke, haemorrhage, infection, hypoxic/anoxic brain injury and medical accidents
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Google books has latest edition of the Textbook of Traumatic Brain injury (APA, 2011)
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=N_lVQ7ZYooC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
Traumatic (acquired) brain injury and behavioural difficulties
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
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If the head receives a serious blow or jolt the brain can be damaged
“Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a form of acquired brain injury, occurs when a sudden trauma causes damage to the brain. TBI can result
when the head suddenly and violently hits an object, or when an object pierces the skull and enters brain tissue.”
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2012)
Difficulties
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Lack of consistency with definitions
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Brain injury network (2012) has called for this to be addressed
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Three types:
Concussion: An impact to the head that jars the brain
and temporally disrupts its normal functioning
Closed head injury: A concussion or head trauma, the
symptoms of which include loss of consciousness after
the nausea after the trauma, confusion, headache,
nausea or vomiting, blurred vision, loss of short-term
memory and perseverating.
Contusion: A severe head trauma in which the brain is
not just jarred but the impact also causes bruising to
the brain.
(Davey 2008; p.504)
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Epilepsy
Hormonal changes?
Coma
Marital breakdown (Landau & Hissett, 2008)
Loss of self (Pollack 1994)
Relating to others (Campbell, 2003) BOBBIE
Executive functioning (Dysexecutive
syndrome)
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functi
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General overview
Range of models/theories
Impact when damaged
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JASON AND HELPERS
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First documented case Phineas Gage (Harlow,
1848)
Early EF models no individual components and
location covered whole of frontal lobes (Anderson,
Jacobs & Anderson 2008, p. xxviii)
A highly complex and interrelated group of
cognitive phenomena (Anderson 2008, p 6) such as:
◦ attention control, inhibition, working memory, goal
setting, planning, problem solving, multi tasking and
abstract reasoning (Senn, Espy, & Kaufmann, 2004;
Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991)
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In order to achieve goal-directed behaviour (Levin &
Hanten, 2005; Lezak, 2004).
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should be theoretically sound, encompass the
various cognitive functions, explain the different
presentation of impairments, provide a link
between brain and behaviour and be able to
suggest assessment methods as well as
interventions. (Gioia, Guy & Isquith, 2001; p.329)
no one model has been uniformally accepted for
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Working memory (Baddely 1997; 2001); developmental
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brief review of prominent EF models see Anderson (2008).
(Anderson, 2002).
One that addresses Gioia et al (2001) list,
Baddeleys’s Working memory model (2001)
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Two functions holding information as the
focus of attention and the retrieval of
information from long term memory (Spillers,
& Unsworth, 2011; p, 1532).
Handout of Baddeleys’s (2001) model?
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Associated difficulties
Dysexecutive syndrome (Baddeley 1988;
p214) is used as umbrella term to describe a
pattern of deficits in executive functioning.
Use of Behavioural assessment of the
Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS) to address
problems with DES, namely high-level tasks
such as planning, organising, initiating,
monitoring and adapting behaviour (Wilson,
Alderman,Burgess, Emslie, and Evans (2003;
p. 33).
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Use of six tests Wilson et al 1998; p215-219:
Rule Shift Cards - Assesses the subject's ability to ignore a prior
rule after being given a new rule to follow.
Action Program - This test requires the use of problem solving to
accomplish a new, practical task.
Key Search - This test reflects the real life situation of needing to
find something that has been lost. It assesses the patient's ability
to plan how to accomplish the task and monitor their own
progress.
Temporal Judgment - Patients are asked to make estimated
guesses to a series of questions such as, "how fast do racehorses
gallop?". It tests the ability to make sensible guesses.
Zoo Map - Tests the ability to plan while following a set of rules.
Modified Six Elements - This test assesses the subject's ability to
plan, organize and monitor behaviour
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Just the figures!
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Limited figures available
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CAROLINE
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Confusion over terminology
Complexity of neuro understanding
Dysexecutive syndrome based on Baddeleys
hypothetical construct of a central executive,
(Wilson, Evans, Emslie, Alderman & Burgess;
p214)
◦ Diagram of Baddeley’s model – difficulty that
theoretical, not definitive, only a model
◦ Research in support of executive functioning
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ISSUES
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Difficulties with empathy, perspective taking and cognitive
flexibility (Grattan, 1994)
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Theories of interpersonal relationships
◦ Attachment theory
◦ Social exchange theory (Homans, 1958)
 Human relationships formed by use of cost-benefit analysis & the
comparison of alternatives
 (Although some critique re. basis in economic theory; based on
openness which not relevant to all & places relationships in linear
structure rather than flexible in path followed – Miller, 2005)
◦ Uncertainty reduction theory (Berger and Calabrese, 1975)
 Individuals seek to reduce uncertainty with each other when first
interacting, based on self-disclosure
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Critics discuss driving force of interaction is desire of positive
relational experiences (e.g. Sunnafrank, 1986)
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All discuss in some form a sense of giving
and receiving of emotional and/or cognitive
information
◦ Empathy positively associated with relationship
satisfaction, negatively associated with depression
and conflict; depression and conflict negatively
associated with relationship satisfaction
 (Cramer, 2010)
◦ Cognitive flexibility positively related to interpersonal
effectiveness
 (Adler, Rosenfold & Proctor, 2007)
Neighbours
/society
Colleagues
Extended family
Parents
Partner
Children
Friends
Employer
Healthcare/social
professionals
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“Coping refers to the persons’ cognitive and
behavioural efforts to manage (reduce, minimise,
master or tolerate) the internal and external
demands of the person-environment transaction
that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the
person’s resources.”
◦ Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen & DeLongis (1986, pg. 572)
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Direct result of the structural lesion
Psychological reaction to the lesion
◦ Somatising
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Evidence for both
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Major depressive disorder (MDD) may be the most common and disabling
psychiatric condition in individuals with TBI
Poorer cognitive functioning, aggression and anxiety, greater functional
disability, poorer recovery, higher rates of suicide attempts, and greater
health care costs associated with MDD after TBI
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Incidence of major depression among 559 people with traumatic brain
injury was nearly eight times greater than would be expected in the
general population
"less than half of the people who were found to have major depression
received any treatment during the first year“
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(Bombardier et al., 2010)
(Fann et al., 2010)
Treating depression can be effective and can decrease functional
impairment, somatic symptoms, and perception of impairment
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(Varney et al., 1987)
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Theories of depression
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Learned helplessness theory: Clinical depression may
result from perceived absence of control over a
situation’s outcome (Seligman, 1975)
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When suffering uncontrollable events, can impact on
emotions, aggressions, physiology and problem-solving
tasks (Roth, 1980)
Critique
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Does not account for varying reactions to same situations
(Peterson & Park, 1998)
Alternative theories (CBT)
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Anger stuff – overlapping with Carolines
slide?
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Challenging behaviour
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CAROLINE
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Adjustment disorders
◦ Many patients suffer poor psychosocial adjustment
and experience a reduced quality of life
 Wolters et al. (2010)
◦ Effectiveness of psychotherapy and adjustment
 Ratzel-kurzdorfer, Franke & Wolfersdorf (2003)
 Strain & Newcorn (2006)
INTERVENTIONS
“challenging behaviours exhibited by those with ABI are significant obstacles to achieving
successful rehabilitative outcomes.”
“the neurorehabilitation field has been slow to embrace the practice of functional analyses”
Rahman, Oliver & Alderman(2010, pg 212 - 13)
Rahman et al (2010) 9 ABI survivors with challenging Behaviours
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method - descriptive functional analysis.
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Found – all participants exhibited at least one behaviour which was socially reinforced.
- Functional analysis was a useful assessment intervention
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Recommended - Assessment using functional analysis in the field of
neurorehabilitation.
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Critique - There were a variety of injury types and frontal lobe damage was not
specified.
Clinical interventions based on functional assessments are still limited.
(Ager & O’May, 2001)
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Behavioural treatment models have been successfully applied for ABI (Corrigan & Bach, 2005)
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Rahman et al (2010) “such behaviours can be decreased and managed by adopting
treatment approaches based on operant conditioning.”
any combination of 3 contingencies (Carr,1977)
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Social positive reinforcement.
o Social attention, or tangible items /activities (Kodak, Northup and Kelley, 2007)
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Social-negative reinforcement
o Behaviours which remove postpone or reduce aspects e.g not needing to do tasks or engage in
social contacts (Iwata, Pace, Kalsher, Cowdery, & Cataldo,1990 )
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Automatic reinforcement
o non environmental BUT internal e.g.
perceptual feedback (Lovaas, Newsom & Hickman, 1987)
Pain attenuation (Sandman & Hetrick, 1995)
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Teaching the patient and family to adapt their
lifestyle
Taking into account the severity of cognitive
and behavioural problems
Patient being stimulated to learn new skills
and compensatory strategies
To return to activities of daily life and
participate in society
◦ Wilson (2000)
Parente (in Shaughnessy & Beyer, 2010)
An approach (American) incorporates therapy group and individual work. Using around topics
identified by client and family surveys prior to therapy;
Memory training - devices – mobile phones, digital recorders , planners and checklists
Disinhibition and hostility – learning to defuse situations , cue words.
Emotional dysregulation & Impulse control –
Medication, making client aware of issue, looking at scenarios and possible responses.
Less aware of normative social behaviour – teach techniques, pair work, video recordings.
Other Psychological effects
Loss of hope
Co-occuring PTSD
Shame and embarrassment (around social behaviour)
Assessments including family members etc.
Take out?
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CBT etc.
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EVERYONE
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Local issues – referrals into neuropsychological
services
Head injury and PTSD? Who treats them?
NHS vs private, increasing pressure to meet
targets and prove effectiveness in outcome
measures, impact on actual treatment received?
◦ Increase in traumatic brain injuries in veterans returning
from war
 America, rehab, v pricey
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Who provides rehabilitation?
JO AND CAROLINE
There was an action plan of services for Acquired brain injury In Northern Ireland in 2009 this identified that
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Services are disjointed and the current provision a patient receives depends on
- underlying cause of the condition
- complexity and severity
- age of the individual
- existing comorbidities
- social and geographical factors
The plan suggested amongst other suggestions;
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Making the services more Joined up
leadership by the Regional Acquired Brain Injury Implementation Group
regional commissioning of ABI services
a virtual ABI networked approach;
better links between general hospitals and ABI network to Promote early identification
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Standardised care pathway including targets around waiting times
improving information around prevalence to plan future service provision
Recognising the importance of family support & importance of promoting independence
Support education and training of staff .
Between 2009/10 and 2011/12 and additional £1.2 million was invested in implementing these changes
No equivalent yet in England and Wales although British Society of Rehabilitation Medicine has called for a joint framework between
employment , social services , and independent/voluntary providers to guide brain injury services (British Society of Rehabilitation Medicine
2008; p. 3)
National Audit Office ( 2011)Report
Almost £1billion wasted through people with neurological
conditions being unnecessarily admitted to hospital.
The MS Society,
Motor Neurone Disease (MND) Association,
Parkinson’s UK
Neurological Alliance,
Neurological Commissioning Support
– urging Government to create a targeted, properly
resourced national strategy for neurological conditions
which would include acquired brain injury.
UKABIF are also asking for an audit of rehabilitation services
for acquired brain injury
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Brain Injury Association of America
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
Brain Injury Association of Canada
Brain Injury Association of Queensland Australia
Headway - the brain injury association
Ontario Shores Centre for Mental Health Sciences
Ontario Brain Injury Association
NICE guidelines, but only for Triage, assessment, investigation and early management of head
injury in infants, children and adults Head injury (CG56
It does not address the rehabilitation or long-term care of patients with a head injury
http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/11836/36260/36260.pdf
Rehabilitation following acquired brain injury National clinical guidelines - by Royal College of
physicians
http://bookshop.rcplondon.ac.uk/contents/43986815-4109-4d28-8ce5-ad647dbdbd38.pdf
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Included recommendation for clinical psychology provision! per 500000 of population (pg18)
More British ones - found Headway
http://www.headway.org.uk/home.aspx
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Communication problems
Family issues
Informed consent
Avoidance of asking re. problems with sexual
functioning BOBBIE
DNA policy – appropriate for FL patients (Spontaneity,
impulse control, disinhibited behaviour etc.)
Clinical responsibility / Organisational
◦ Which services are best to deal with traumatic brain injury
and in particular support with the challenging behaviour?
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Social care needs
Compensation claims
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Sexual difficulties – under acknowledged, lack of information
Study by Rolls, Honack, Wade and McGrath (1994)
Problematic sexual behaviour in patients with frontal lobe damage that
they studied e.g.
- sexually explicit language,
- actual sexual advances
- being over friendly, kissing and hugging
- exposure
Difficulties for the patient and partner
Patient information (e.g. Headways) mentions sexual difficulties (?
Psychological )
Orbital frontal lobe damage – peculiar sexual habits
Headway (charity) – suggests;
- sexual counselling from e.g. Relate
- a clinical neuropsychologist who specialises in sexual relationships
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Who has overall clinical responsibility?
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What would be different if it was an
organically caused brain injury?
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Impact on client, carer, wider system, CP
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What issues would be unique to TBI?
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How would impact of CP differ?
Questions
Ager, A., & O’May, F. (2001). Issues in the definition and implementation of “best practice” for staff delivery of interventions for challenging
behaviour. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 26, 243–256.
Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2),
71-82.
Anderson P.J. (2008). Models of executive function. In V Anderson, Jacobs R, Anderson PJ. Executive functions and the frontal
lobes: A lifespan perspective. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 3–21.
Baddely, A. (1997). Human Memory: Theory and practice, revised edn, Psychology Press: Hove.
Baddeley A.D. (2002) Is working memory still working? American Psychologist; 56 (11), 851-864.
Baddeley, A., & Wilson, B. (1988). Frontal amnesia and the dysexecutive syndrome. Brain and Cognition, 7, 212-230
Bechara, A., Damasio, A.R., Damasio H., & Anderson, S.W. (1994) "Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to
human prefrontal cortex". Cognition 50: 7-15.
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British Society for Rehabilitation Medicine (2008). Vocational assessment and rehabilitation after acquired brain injury inter-agency
guidelines. Retrieved from http://bookshop.rcplondon.ac.uk/contents/fbc3513a-5642-459a-9b2c-a1e47e8745ad.pdf
Carr, E. G. (1977). Motivation of self-injurious behavior: A review of some hypotheses. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 800–816.
Davey, G. (2008) Psychopathology Research, Assessment and Treatment In Clinical Psychology. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
Folkman, S. Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J. & DeLongis, A. (1986) Appraisal, coping, health status and psychological symptoms Journal of
and Social Psychology, 50, 571-579.
Personality
Gioia, G.A., Guy, S.C., Isquith, P.K. (2001), Assessment of Executive Functions in Children with Neurologic Impairment. In G.A. Gioia, S.C. Guy,
& P.K. Isquith (Eds.), Psychological and Development Assessment, (pp. 317-356). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Guess, D., & Carr, E. (1991). Emergence and maintenance of stereotypy and self-injury.American Journal on Mental Retardation, 96, 299–
319.
Headway (2012) sex and sexuality after brain injury, retrieved from
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Harlow, J. (1848). The passage of an iron rod through the head. Boston medical and surgical journal, 39, 389-393. Retrieved from
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Kringelbach, M.L. (2005) The orbitofrontal cortex: linking reward to hedonic experience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6: 691-
702.
Iwata, B. A., Pace, G. M., Kalsher, M. J., Cowdery, G. E., & Cataldo, M. F. (1990). Experimental analysis and extinction of self-injurious escape
behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 11–27.
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Analysis, 40, 167–171.
Behavior
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Lovaas, I., Newsom, C., & Hickman, C. (1987). Self–stimulatory behavior and perceptual reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 45–68.
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mild and moderate head injuries. Journal of Neurosurgery, 66, 706-713.
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