Russia in Eurasia,
Part 2
Tsar Peter the Great, Emperor of All
Russias
(reign 1682-1725)
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Under Peter I, Russia was officially constituted as
a European-type empire
Peter was keenly aware of Russia’s backwardness
in comparison with Europe
Modernization of the Russian system was seen by
him as essential for Russia’s security and
prosperity
Regaining access to the Caspian, Black and baltic
Seas was a strategic goal
To gain it, Peter waged wars for almost 30 years –
against Tatar Khanates in the South and the
Swedish Empire in the Northwest
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Using ruthless methods, Peter remade the
Russian state into a centralized bureaucratic
machine headed by the autocratic monarch
Everyone in Russia was ordered to serve this state
– for the sake of Russia’s greatness
Essentially, it meant compulsory military service
The new capital: St. Petersburg, founded in 1703
Poseidon over St. Petersburg
The Battle of Poltava, 1709: Russia defeats Sweden
Russia’s naval victory over Sweden: Battle of Gangut, 1714
Empress
Catherine II
(reign
Emperor Alexander I (reign 1801-1825)
Napoleon at the Battle of Borodino: Sept. 7, 1812
Borodino
Moscow on Fire
Napoleon’s retreat from Russia, winter of 1812-13
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The victory over Napoleon propelled Russia into
a new rank – a European Great Power, a
member of the Concert of Great Powers, and,
together with France, Britain, Austria and Prussia,
a guarantor of European balance of power
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It also gave a new impetus to policies of
containment of Russia
“The Russian octopus” – a British 1850s cartoon
An Imperial Russian Army officer, 1812:
patriotism and a thirst for freedom
St. Petersburg, December 18, 1825: Young officers rebel against autocracy
Tsar Nicholas I (reign 1825-1855):
Nationalism, bureaucracy, stagnation
A Russian naval triumph: sinking a Turkish fleet at Sinop, Black Sea
British cavalry attacks Russian troops in the Crimean War, 1855
The siege of Sevastopol, 1855
Emperor Alexander II “The Liberator” (reign 1855-1881): liberal reforms
Emperor Alexander
III (reign 1881-1894):
conservatism,
nationalism,
modernization
The Russian Empire: fourth integration of Eurasia
Coat-ofarms of
the
Russian
Empire,
1890s
Russia’s 19th century
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The apex of expansion – and the lag behind the West
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From the triumph of 1812 (victory over Napoleon) to the
disaster of 1855 (defeat in the Crimean War)
The pressures for change
 The reforms of Alexander II
 Development of capitalism
vs.
 Political modernization
Capitalism was creating new classes, new issues, new
conflicts – and the state was expected to evolve to be able
to deal with them.
But the Russian state was not up to the task.
It was not capable of adapting to – and managing – the
processes of socioeconomic change
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Grain production in Russia, late 19th century*:
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1/3 of the German level
1/7 of the British level
½ of the French and Austrian levels
*Richard Pipes, Russia Under the old Regime. Penguin Books, 1974, p.8
The issue of the surplus.
The costs of security and development
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Deceptive appearances of Russia:
The image of stability vs.
The potential for revolution
REFORM VS. REVOLUTION: IS THE SYSTEM
REFORMABLE?
RUSSIA’S REBELS
 Cossack uprisings of 17th and 18th centuries
 (Razin, Bolotnikov, Pugachev)
 The Decembrists – 1825
 The Revolutionary Democrats (Chernyshevsky, Herzen)
 The Populists
 The Anarchists (Kropotkin, Bakunin)
 The Social Democrats (Plekhanov, Lenin)
Nicholas II, Russia’s last Tsar (reign 1894-1917)
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By the end of the 19th century, the flaws of the
Russian system become manifest
The gap between Europe and Russia widens fast,
the Russian system is too inefficient, too rigid,
resistant to reform
The 1904-05 war with Japan and then World War I
exhaust the Russian state and expose its flaws
1905-1917: 12 YEARS OF UPHEAVAL WHICH
DESTROYED THE RUSSIAN AUTOCRACY AND
EMPIRE
Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05: A Russian cartoon
Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05: A Japanese cartoon
Beginning of the end of the Romanov Empire:
Defeat of the Russian navy in the battle of Tsushima, May 1905
Russo-Japanese war triggers a Russian revolution
The crisis of the Russian “battle order”
The effects of wars on the Russian system:
successful wars (1721, 1815, 1878, 1945) –
reaffirmed the status-quo, strengthened the state,
discouraged reforms
unsuccessful wars (1856, 1905, 1917, 1989) –
fostered reforms and revolutions
Symbol of state power - or weapon of revolution?
Russian battleship “Potemkin”, taken over by revolutionary sailors in 1905
Symbol of state power - or weapon of revolution?
Russian cruiser “Avrora”, key to the success of the October, 1917 Communist coup
EUROPE, 1914
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The summer of 1914 marked a watershed in world
history:
For the first time ever, a world war began
Since 1914, we’ve experienced 4 world wars
They are historically connected with each other –
like links of a chain
They may be viewed as 4 stages of one continuous
period of global conflict
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What made world wars possible:
1. An integrated world – globalization
2. Struggle for power within countries acquires
international dimensions
3. Availability of economic resources
4. Development of military technologies
5. The culture of war
New rationalizations of war
 The idea of total war
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Causes of Russia’s involvement in World War I:
- own imperial goals (the Balkans and
Transcaucasus): natural behaviour of an empire
- influence of Britain and France
- a war to avoid a revolution
The clash of empires:
The interstate conflict
The internal factors:
- interplay of nationalisms
- class conflicts
- struggles over democratic reforms
Russian soldiers pledge allegiance to the Tsar: World War I