CHAPTER FIVE
CONTINGENCY MODELS:
USING RESOURCES
EFFECTIVELY
Learning Objectives
1.
2.
3.
Explain the importance of the effective
use of resources to leadership.
Distinguish between a task-motivated and
a relationship-motivated leader and
identify the elements of situational control
used in Fiedler’s Contingency Model of
Leadership.
Present the Contingency Model’s
predictions and explain how to use it to
improve leadership effectiveness.
Learning Objectives
(con’t.)
4.
5.
6.
Present the four decision styles used in
the Normative Decision Model of
Leadership.
Understand the role of decision quality
and follower acceptance in the choice
of leadership styles and how to use the
Normative Decision Model to improve
leadership effectiveness.
Discuss the Cognitive Resource Theory
and its implications for leaders.
Elements Of Fiedler’s
Contingency Model


The leader’s style:
• Task or relationship motivation
measured by the LPC scale
Situational control:
• Leader-member relations
• Task structure
• Position power
Characteristics Of Task And
Relationship-motivated
Leaders
Task-Motivated
(Low-LPC)
• Draws self-esteem from
task completion
• Focuses on task first
• Can be harsh with failing
followers
• Considers competence to
be key employee trait
• Enjoys details
Relationship-Motivated
(High-LPC)
• Draws self-esteem from
interpersonal
relationships
• Focuses on people first
• Likes to please others
• Considers loyalty to be
key employee trait
• Gets bored with details
Fiedler’s Model
G
R
O
U
P
P
E
R
F
O
R
M
A
N
C
E
Low-LPC
High-LPC
High
Low
Leader-Member
Relations
GOOD
HIGH
Task Structure
Position Power
HIGH
HIGH
BAD
LOW
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
LOW
LOW
MODERATE
SITUATIONAL CONTROL
HIGH
LOW
LOW
Contingency Model’s
Implications For Managers





Leaders must understand their own
style and their leadership situation
Leaders should focus on changing the
situation to match their style
A good relationship with followers is
key to
the leader’s ability to lead
Leaders can seek training to
compensate for task ambiguity
Elements Of The Normative
Decision Model
The leader’s decision-making
style:
• Autocratic
• Consultative
• Group/Delegation
 Contingency factors:
• Quality of the decision
• Acceptance of subordinates

Contingency Factors In The
Normative Decision Model



Quality requirement (QR)
How important is the quality of the
decision?
Commitment requirement (CR)
How important is employee
commitment?
Leader information (LI)
Does leader have enough
information?
Contingency Factors In The
Normative Decision Model
(con’t.)
 Structure of the problem (ST)
Is the problem clear?
Commitment probability (CP)
How likely is employee commitment if
leader makes the decision alone?
Goal congruence (GC)
Do employees agree with organizational
goals?
Contingency Factors In The
Normative Decision Model
(con’t.)
 Employee conflict (CO)
Is there conflict among employees
over solution?
 Subordinate information (SI)
Do employees have enough
information to make a high-quality
decision?
Normative Decision Model’s
Implications For Managers



Leaders must understand the
situation and how to use different
decision styles
Participation is not always desirable
Leaders must pay attention to their
followers’ needs and reactions when
making decisions
Elements Of The Cognitive
Resource Theory


The leader’s intelligence and
experience
Contingency factors:
 Level of stress
 Interpersonal conflict
 Concerns about performance
Cognitive Resource Theory’s
Implications For Managers

The role of stress must be considered
and assessed
 Organizations must consider both
leader’s intelligence and experience
Leading Change:
Donald Winkler
• People don’t fail; events do
• Breakthrough leadership based on:







Getting things done
Accountability
Straight talk
Collective effort
Trust
Equality
Intense listening
Leadership In Action:
Bill Gates and Mary Kay
Ash
Highly intelligent, passionate about their business, energetic, driven



Focus on smart
people working
on new problems
Performance and
intense
competition
Intellectual,
confrontational
and demanding



Focus on God and
family
Support women’s
careers and their
family
Mother figure,
nurturing and
accessible
The Leadership Challenge



Leader may be low-LPC who gains
a sense of control and
accomplishments by working in
very low situational control
Intervention may be necessary to
help him learn to change the
situation without creating chaos
Allow selection and building of
cohesive team, provide leader with
task training, and maintain his
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Learning Module
Diversity in the
Workplace
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should:




Understand why diversity in the workplace
matters
Know the different types of diversity
Understand the challenges raised by
workplace diversity
Know how I-O psychologists help
organizations manage diversity
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Why does diversity in the
workplace matter?

The service economy




Globalization of business



interactions between people are key
customer base is more diverse
similarities between people ease process
doing business with people from around
world
The changing labor market
by the Society for and
Industrial and
Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
CompanyPrepared
mergers
buy-outs
Types of Diversity

Gender diversity

more women in workforce today than
ever


stereotypes still remain


better educated than ever
glass ceiling, etc.
Age diversity



as population ages, more older workers
are available
re-entry of middle-aged women to work
retirees returning
to supplement pension
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Types of Diversity

Cultural diversity


affects values, view of the world
more than 40% of new entrants into U.S.
workforce from non-“majority” groups
about 22% new immigrants
 about 20% African-American or Hispanic



growing international business
employees maintain ties to national and
cultural heritage
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Other Types of Diversity
(You May Not Have Thought Of)

Family situations


Physical and psychological disabilities




single employees (mothers and others)
Americans with Disabilities Act
Sexual orientation
Political views
Personal idiosyncrasies
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Challenges of Diversity

Availability challenge

in past employers could control diversity


qualified employees have become scarce



more people than jobs
employers must become more flexible
realize “Different does not mean deficient”
Fairness challenge

in past, typically viewed as equal treatment


Equal Employment Opportunity
now employers must embrace new diversity

essentially focus on “differences”
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Challenges of Diversity

Synergy challenge


more and more group-based work
diversity can create positive and
negative conflict
can facilitate creative problem-solving
 can close down communication
 can derail group processes


group leaders must minimize destructive
conflict and maximize diversity of input
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
How do I-O psychologists help
organizations manage
diversity?

Providing managers with training



how to recruit/hire diverse employees
how to orient/integrate new employees
Providing all employees with training



realizing the differences that exist
learning how differences affect working
environment
how to maximize productivity without
ignoringPrepared
employee
differences
by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Learning Module
Leadership
and Gender
Stereotypes
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should:



Understand the leadership
perceptions approach
Understand how gender stereotyping
in organizations affects perceptions of
leaders
Know some of the methods used to
control stereotyping in organizations
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Leadership Perceptions

Leadership is hard to define


but we know it when we see it!
Leadership Perceptions Approach



people must first be recognized as
leaders.
then they are allowed to influence
followers.
followers determine the ultimate success
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
of leaders.
General Model of Leadership
Perceptions



Leader behavior determines follower
perceptions, which are associated with
positive or negative outcomes.
Outcomes such as success can also
serve to shape follower perceptions.
General Model:
Individual,
Leader
Behavior
Follower
Perceptions
Group, and
Organizational
Outcomes
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Gender and Leadership
Perceptions
Leader
Behavior



Follower
Perceptions
Individual,
Group, and
Organizational
Outcomes
Identical behavior from men and women is
interpreted differently.
Perceivers attach different labels to the
same behaviors enacted by men and
women.
One reason is because of gender
stereotypes.
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Gender Stereotypes and
Leadership Perceptions


Stereotypes are expectations about
members of certain groups.
Gender-based stereotypes include beliefs
about:



expected interpersonal behavior
the types of roles or jobs best suited for men
and women.
The role of gender stereotypes in
employment was at issue in Price
Waterhouse v. Hopkins.
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Gender Stereotypes and
Leadership Perceptions





Ann B. Hopkins was a high-performing, but
masculine acting, prospective partner at PW.
Hopkins alleged she was denied partnership
because of her gender.
PW countered that Hopkins had interpersonal
problems (e.g., she was "macho").
Court eventually ruled that gender-based
stereotyping influenced perceptions of her behavior.
Because she was a woman in a nontraditional role,
Hopkins' behavior was seen as more extreme than
men who behaved similarly.
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Controlling our Stereotyping




Everyone (or nearly everyone) engages in
stereotyping.
Most recognize it is inappropriate to judge
others based on a stereotype.
How can we learn to control our
stereotyping?
One way is through conscious control.
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
How do I/O psychologists help
organizations control stereotyping?


Identifying organizational consequences that
gender and race stereotyping have
Training employees to gather individuating
information about the stereotyped person




getting to know the person as an individual
understanding benefits of diversity
Training employers to effectively manage
diversity
Helping to minimize the effects of stereotyping
and unfair treatment of employees
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
Sharing Perceptions




Previous research indicates that the same
behavior by men and women leaders
results in different perceptions.
Women are seen as more bossy and
dominating.
Men are seen as having greater ability,
skill, and intelligence.
Gender stereotypes influence our reactions,
even without our awareness.
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998
The Power of Talk:
Who Gets Heard and Why
By Deborah Tannen
Linguistic Style

A person’s characteristic speaking pattern.
A set of culturally learned signals by which
we not only communicate what we mean
but also interpret others’ meaning and
evaluate one another as people
Linguistic Style

Features include





Directness or indirectness
Pacing & pausing
Word choice
Use of elements like jokes, figures of speech,
stories, questions & apologies
Turn taking
Linguistic Style

Every utterance functions on two levels:


Language communicates ideas
Language negotiates relationships
The Kicker

Girls tend to learn conversational rituals
that focus on the rapport dimension of
relationships whereas boys tend to learn
rituals that focus on the status dimension
Linguistic Patterns




One Up, One Down
Getting Credit
Confidence & Boasting
Asking Questions
Linguistic Patterns

One Up, One Down



Men tend to be sensitive to the power and
attain one up
Women tend to be sensitive to rapport and
will take one down
Getting Credit

Men say ‘I’ where women say ‘we’
Linguistic Patterns

Confidence & Boasting



Women downplay certainty
Men minimize doubts
Asking Questions

Can put you in a one down position, boys are
more aware of this

The norms of behavior in the US business
world are based on the style of interaction
that is more common among men—at
least American men.
Conversational Rituals





Conversation is ritual in the sense that we
speak in ways our culture has
conventionalized and expect certain types
of responses.
Apologies
Feedback
Compliments
Ritual Opposition
Conversational Rituals

Apologies



Feedback


Women say I’m sorry more often than men
Puts in one-down, even though other women know
they aren’t really sorry
Differing Styles
Compliments

Women pay more than men, puts at a disadvantage
in the work place
Conversational Rituals

Ritual Opposition



An exploration through verbal opposition
They put their ideas in the most certain and
absolute form they can, and wait to see if
they are challenged
Being forced to defend an idea gives the
opportunity to test it
Negotiating Authority


Actual authority has to be negotiated day to day
Managing Up and Down


Boys are rewarded for talking up their
accomplishments, girls aren’t
Indirectness


The tendency to say what we mean without spelling it
out
Men are often more direct
What to do?



Become aware
Make sure everyone is heard
Be more flexible
Knowing “What” to do is not
Enough:
Turning Knowledge into Action
By
Jeff Pfeffer & Robert Sutton
We intuitively understand that
knowing is not enough




$60 billion spent on training annually
Training not implemented
Billions for management consultants
Why don’t top performers look to the Ivy
League Schools?
Is there a gap?


Even if evidence is strong, not always
adopted
Performance not transferred across firms
Does it Matter?



There’s too much information out there to
successfully hoard many secrets
Most interventions are about things already
known
Although knowledge creation, benchmarking,
and knowledge management may be important,
transforming it into action is at least as
important
Problems with Knowledge
Management

First, the conception of knowledge as
explicit and quantifiable




We treat knowledge like a warehouse item
Do we build it into products?
Do we develop new products based on it?
Working Knowledge – knowledge is
transferred between people by stories, gossip
and watching others work.
Problems with Knowledge
Management

First (continued)


Tacit knowledge cannot be stored readily
Knowledge storage and retrieval systems are
often not developed by those who will use
them
Problems with Knowledge
Management


Second, it is conceptualized as distinct
from philosophy or values
Third, we overestimate the importance of
the tangible, specific, programmatic
aspects of knowledge and underestimate
the underlying philosophy that guides
what is done and how
Why Typical KM Practices Make the
Gap Worse





Emphasize technology and transfer of
codified information
Treats knowledge as a tangible thing and
separates it from its use
Formal systems can’t easily store tacit
knowledge
The people responsible don’t understand
Philosophy is ignored
Turning Knowledge into Action




Why before how: Philosophy is important
Knowing comes from doing and teaching
others how
Action counts more than elegant plans
and concepts
There is no doing without mistakes. What
is the company’s response?
Turning Knowledge into Action




Fear fosters knowing-doing gaps, so drive
it out
Beware of false analogies: fight the
competition, not each other
Measure what matters and what can help
turn knowledge into action
What leaders do, how they spend their
time and how they allocate resources,
matters