Language, Reading, and Spelling:
The Interplay
Lori Josephson, M.A.
Monica Gordon Pershey, Ed.D., CCC-SLP
Presented at the Annual Conference of
the International Dyslexia Association
November 3, 2007
Dallas, TX
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
1
Oral Language:
Connection to Academics
Oral Language Forms the Underpinnings
for the “Essential Components of
Reading Instruction”:
– Phonemic Awareness
– Phonics
– Vocabulary Development
– Reading Fluency (Oral & Silent)
– Reading Comprehension Strategies
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
2
Oral Language:
Connection to Academics
Development of Written Language Skills:
– Spelling
– Writing to the Audience
– Sentence Structure (Syntax/Grammar)
– Retrieval of Oral Vocabulary
– Sequencing (Phonemes, Words, Ideas)
– Organization of Thought
– Active Working Memory: Remembering
What You’ve Written and What You Still
Want to Write
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
3
Oral Language:
Connection to Academics
Content Area Instruction
– The Language of Mathematics
 Vocabulary
 Syntax
 Multiple Meanings
– Social Studies/Science
 Vocabulary
 Abstract Thinking
 Precise Observation/
Measurement
 Drawing Conclusions
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
4
Oral Language: Three Systems
Semantics = “Content”
- Making Meaning
- Vocabulary
- Specialized Lexicon
- Concept Development
- Breadth, Depth, and Connections
- Contextual Usage and Analysis of
Words
- Structural Analysis of Words
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Oral Language: Three Systems
Syntax = “Form”
- Phonology: Phonemes, Syllables,
Intonation, Stress, Pauses
- Content Words: Nouns, Verbs,
Adjectives, Adverbs
- Function Words: Preposition,
Conjunction, Auxiliary Verb, Article,
Pronouns
- Morphology: Affixes, Inflection,
Contractions
- Word Order: Clauses, Sentence
Types, Question Words, Negation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
6
Oral Language: Three Systems
Pragmatics = “Use” = In Context
- Message Function: Intent and
Purpose (To Inform, To Question,
To Joke, To Form Attachment)
- Message Cohesion: Successive
Utterances Follow Logically,
Maintain a Topic, Change a Topic,
Lead Up to a Point, Sequence
- Discourse: A Text (A Passage, A
Book, An Advertisement, A
Conversation, A Movie); A Genre
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Oral Language: Three Systems
Linguistic
Clarity
Meet the
Informational
Needs of the
Listener
Logical Sequence
Economy
Expressivity
Self-Monitoring
Executive Function
Social/Cultural/
Gender/Age/Setting/
Interlocutors
Cooperation
Turn-Taking
Politeness
Status/Role
Topic Selection
Nonverbal Language
Self-Monitoring
Executive Function
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Oral Language: Three Systems




Pragmatic skill is judged by criteria of
social validity - success in a social field
Listener evaluations are dependent
upon culturally conditioned values that
dictate credibility: wealth, appearance,
physical fitness
Linguistic/cognitive competence may
or may not predict social competence
Social competence may mask
linguistic/cognitive deficits
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Oral Language: Three Systems
Bloom, L. Pediatrics 1998;102:e1272
Copyright ©1998 American Academy of Pediatrics
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Form






Articulation/Auditory Discrimination
Phonological Processing/Phonemic
Awareness
– Manipulation Affects Reading/Spelling
(Blending, Segmenting, Elision,
Substitution)
– Phonological Memory Affects Retrieval
(Spelling)
Receptive/Expressive Production Errors Phonological Neighbors
Syntax (Function Words, Prepositions)
Active Working Memory - Metalinguistic
Long Term Memory
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Components of Language and
Academic Instruction - Form






Reading Readiness - Development
of Phonological Awareness,
Memory, Rapid Naming Ability
Reading Decoding/Spelling – Word
and Sentence Level
Oral Reading Fluency
Written Sentence Construction
Math Formulae
Sequencing of Steps in Math
Calculation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
12
Meet Matthew
Presented in Spring of Kindergarten
 History of Speech; Brothers
Need(ed) Intervention
 Poor Articulation - /k/, /g/, /l/, /r/
 Poor Discrimination - k/g, f/th/v
 Overall Intelligibility Poor
 Poor Oral Language Affected
Development of Rhyming, Phonological
Awareness, Sound/Symbol Relationships,
Development of Sight Word Vocabulary
 CTOPP (age 6): Average Phonological
Awareness and Rapid Naming; Below
Average Phonological Memory
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
13
Meet Matthew


DIBELS: Steady Growth Throughout 1st
Grade
Nonsense Word Fluency: 22 (fall), 52
(winter), 94 (spring) - At Benchmark
Oral Reading Fluency: 21wpm (winter);
55wpm (spring); 59wpm (fall 2nd
grade) - At Benchmark
Retell Fluency: 15 (winter); 30 (spring);
15 (fall 2nd grade) - Variable
Difficulty Using Correct Syntax at Times;
Irregular Past Tense Shaky:
‘Tooken Out’ for ‘Taken Out’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Meet Matthew

Results of Intervention Have Been
FABULOUS!!!
Articulation Correct Except /r/ Medial
Decoding/Encoding VERY Good for
What Has Been Taught: 3, 4, 5 Sound
Words; Suffixes s, es, er, est, ed, ing;
Schwa; Nasals; Rules of
Syllabication Using Closed Syllable
Words
Fluency is At and Above Benchmark
At Times, Difficulty Pronouncing
Multisyllable Words: Magnifying
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
15
Meet John

Presented In 1st Grade:
History of Speech/Language Issues; Family
History of Delayed Language/Speech
– Poor Intelligibility
– Poor Sound Discrimination
– Poor Visual-motor Skills (Handwriting/
Motor Planning Problems)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
16
Meet John
– Average Reading:
Sound/Symbol Relationships (When
Discriminated Appropriately);
Poor APPLICATION of these Skills for
Decoding Nonsense Words and
Encoding;
Slow to Learn Nonphonetic Sight
Words for Spelling
- Poor Spelling: Phonetic Speller Based
Upon Faulty Articulations: ‘Wif’ for
‘With’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
17
Meet John

Early Intervention: 1st and 2nd Grades
– Improvement In Articulation and
Intelligibility
– Attended Speech Therapy - Work on
Articulation and Intelligibility,
Pronunciation of Multisyllabic Words
– Impulsive Work Style: Reads Many
Words Per Minute with Many Errors
(Omissions of Suffix Endings/ Function
Words)
– Improvement in Decoding and Encoding;
Syllabication Skills- Grade Level Work
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
18
Meet John

Continued Remediation: 3rd-4th Grades
– Released From Speech Therapy - 4th
Grade
– Continued Improvement in All Areas
– Able to Blend/Segment Sounds in up
to 6 Sound Words- Impulsive Work
Style Continues to Interfere with
Spelling Mastery (Sound Omissions/
Substitutions)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
19
Meet John

Continued Remediation:
– Knowledge of Syllable Types:
Closed, Open, Vowel-consonant-e,
Consonant-le
– Knowledge of Rules of Syllabication
– Knowledge of Basic Latin Suffixes
– Improvement in Sight Word Vocabulary
for Spelling
– Continued Difficulty Pronouncing
Multisyllabic Words: ‘Twists’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
20
Meet John
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Meet John
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Meet John
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Less Developed Oral Language Results
in Persistent, Consistent Decoding
Errors - Grade 5 Selection
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Content


Vocabulary - One of the Best Predictors
of School Success
– Overall Lexicon (Academic)
– Word Retrieval
– Phonological Neighbors (Malapropisms)
– Multiple Meanings
– Antonyms/Synonyms
Overall Productivity
– Spoken Language
– Written Language
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
25
Content



Morphology
– Affixes
– Root/Combined Forms Study
– Word Derivatives
Grammar/Word Function
Semantic Neighbors –
Precision of Usage
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
26
Components of Language and
Academic Instruction - Content




Vocabulary Meaning in All Subject Areas
(Alternate Meanings, Synonyms)
Comprehension of Complex Text in Any
Content Area
Comprehension of Discourse
(Spoken/Written), Subject Specific or for
Social Purposes
Ability to Read to Learn Vs. Read for
Pleasure
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
27
Components of Language and
Academic Instruction - Content



Understanding Figurative Language,
Metaphors, Similes
Critical Thinking Using the Vocabulary
of Instruction/Vocabulary Internalized
for Discourse
Understanding the Language of Math
and the Ability to Explain Solutions to
Math Problems
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
28
Revisit with John


Oral Syntax has had a BIG Affect on
Reading/Written Language Skills
Use of Prepositions: For/So
– “I Went to the Bank for I
Could Get Money.”
– Remediation Required
Oral/Written Modeling
Over a Long Period
of Time
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
29
Revisit with John



Omission of ‘Function Words’/Suffix
Endings While Reading Orally
Ability to Create Sentences with
Correct Usage Given Target Words with
1 and 2 Suffix Endings or
Derivatives: Carelessly, Actively,
Gracefully
“He is all the time lately.”
“He destructiveness knocked the
building over.”
Difficulty with Homophones, Multiple
Meanings, Idioms
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
30
More children….

Phonological Neighbors:
– Russell (grade 4): Budge/budget
– Alex (grade 8): Instigate/imitate
– Rachel (grade 7): anecdote/antidote
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
31
Meet Kendra
Presented in Grade 6
Vocabulary/Productivity/Grammar:
- Overall Productivity In Oral Language Domain
- Wordy Written Language
- Poor Syntax/Low Vocabulary Level
- Poor Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary
due to Both Low Overall Language Skills and
Reduced Reading Experience
- Deficits in Word Retrieval
- Poor Recognition of Patterns Affects
Morphology (Affixes, Roots)
- Poor Imagery
- DISCONNECT Between Oral Language Grammar - Written Language
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Meet Kendra
In chapter 5 Jonas and his famil y talk about the dream that they had that night. JonasÕ
s
dream was a li ttle awkward, his parents told Jonas that it was the being o f Stirrings.
Stirrings begins in a dream. I think Stirrings means when a boy starts to li ke a girl or the
other way around. Jonas has to start taking pill s through his whole adult hood. Everyone
has to do the same when it happens to them.
In chapter 6 there is a ceremony and everyone turns a year older at the same time. When
they turn a year older they get a gift. Lily is turning 9 and is getting a bicycle. Jonas is
turning 12 and is getting to get a job.
In chapter 5 Jonas and his famil y discuss the dreams they all had the previous night. It
was awkward for Jonas to talk about his dream since it dealt with adolescent feeli ngs; his
parents told Jonas that it was the beginning of Stirrings. JonasÕ
s mother explained that
Stirrings begin in a dream, and all chil dren his age have them. I think Stirrin gs refers to
the romantic feeli ngs that boys and girls have to ward each other. His mother goes on to
explain that Jonas must take pill s through his whole adulthood in order to dimi nish
Stirrings altogether. This society requires everyone his age to take pill s to elimi nate
Stirrings.
Chapter 6 involves a ceremony when everyone tur ns a year older at the same time
(sim ultaneously ). When the chil dren in the community turn a year older, they receive a
gif t, which is the same depending o n the chil dÕ
s age. All eight year olds, such as Lil y,
receive a jacket with small er butto ns down the front showing her independence. Jonas,
li ke the ot her twelve year olds, receives a job Assignment.
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Meet Amanda
TOWL
Grade Equivalent 4.4
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
34
Meet Andrew

Presented in Kindergarten
- ‘Over-Focusing’
- Slow to Follow Directions
- Attentional Difficulties
- Difficulty with Transitions
- Mild Anxiety Issues
- “Loses Track of Time”
- Relatively Weak Handwriting Skills
- ‘Phonics’ Deemed Intact
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
35
Meet Andrew

Assessment Results:
– Sound/Symbol Relationships Intact; Poor
APPLICATION for Decoding/Encoding
– Difficulty Recognizing and Spelling
Nonphonetic Sight Words; Both Affecting
Fluency
– Underlying Difficulty with Language:
Days of the Week, Months of the Year,
Seasons, Holidays
Address, Telephone Number
Overall Weak Vocabulary
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
36
Meet Andrew
Andrew’s ‘Disconnected’ Language Skills
CREVT Scores:
Receptive Vocabulary 37th Percentile
Expressive Vocabulary 19th Percentile
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
37
Meet Andrew
Receptive Errors
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
38
Meet Andrew


Expressive Errors:
– ‘dog’ - “goes outside and pees”
– ‘oven’ - “it’s hot”
– ‘lemon’ - “put it in drinks”
Ongoing Difficulties with Categorizing/
Naming, Synonyms, Antonyms, Multiple
Meanings, Analogies
– Naming Parts of a Car - “motor, door, air thing,
drivers plate (license)”
– “Car : drive as toy : Lego”
– Baseball Unit - Naming - “bat, mitt, ball,”
prompt “helmet, mask”; Multiple Meanings
“park, fly, catch”
– “Baseball : sport as cake : eat”
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
39
Meet Andrew
Andrew’s Handwriting/Process Speed
Slow Process Speed - Beery VMI - 55th Percentile
Summer 2006
Winter 2007
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
40
Use

Pragmatics Affect Fluency and
Comprehension

Ability to Participate in Discourse Written Language

Ability to Socially Interact Appropriately

World Knowledge
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
41
Components of Language and
Academic InstructionPragmatics




Understanding the Implicit Meaning
As Well As Explicit Meaning in
Literature and in Content Area
Reading
Understanding Humor
Understanding Hidden Motivations
of Characters in Literature, Leaders
in History, Etc.
Understanding Applications of Math
Instruction in Everyday Life
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
42
More children….


Kendra and Gabe:
– Retellings Low Level in Terms of
Production
– Retelling Begins with the Final
Sentence Read (Typically a Detail);
No Main Idea
Andrew (Grade 1):
– Poor Eye Contact, Inattentive ADD,
Affective Issues
– Over-Focused on Details
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
43
Meet Matt
Presented in Grade 2:
- Poor Decoding/Encoding
- Comprehension Intact
- Poor Handwriting
Grade 5: Good Response to Tutorial
- Fluency and Decoding Intact
- Began to Experience Breakdown in
Comprehension as Sentence Length
and Text Complexity Increased
(Appositives, Compound Sentences)
- ‘Word-caller’
- Written Language Mechanical,
Wordy
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
44
Meet Matt
Cave Paintings
In the Cave of Lascaux, there are many cave painting of anim als made by cave men. I
think the cave men must have been very intelli gent to think of how to make different
colors out of different berries. I think they had to be interested in drawing to take the
tim e to draw those cave paintings when they probably had better things they could do like
hunt for food. I think they may have drawn these cave paintings because they wanted to
show other people that they li ved here in the cave. Also, they may have wanted to keep
learning about different ways they could have drawn on the cave wall s. I think they tried
to keep history by drawing t hese pictures and they did a good job.
In the Cave of Lascaux, many cave painting exist of anim als made by homosapiens. I
think the cave men displayed intelli gence by thinking of how to make diff erent color
paints out of berries. In addition, they appeared to have an interest in drawing and to take
the tim e to draw the cave paintings when they probably had better things to do such as
search for food. I beli eve they drew these cave paintings because they wanted to show
others that they lived here in the cave. Their paintings depict various anim als in
existence at that tim e. Also, they experim ented with different ways to draw on the cave
wall s using rocks and berries. They attempted to record history by drawing these
detail ed, well -done pictures on cave wall s.
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
45
Meet Chris
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
46
Implications for Instruction
Task Analysis for Instruction:
STRUCTURED----------------SPONTANEOUS
 Oral Language Production in a Structured
Situation
 Oral Language Production in a
Spontaneous Situation
 Written Language Production in a
Structured Situation
 Written Language Production in a
Spontaneous Situation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
47
Implications for Instruction
Provide Interactive Lessons:
– Lecture Format is Often Too Fatiguing
for LD Students
 Speak Slowly:
– Normal Rate: 130-250 Words Per Minute
(Emerick & Haynes 1986)
– Oral Reading Rate: 130-140 WPM
Recommended
– Delivery of Verbal Information at
<200 WPM Recommended
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
48
Implications for Instruction



Directly Teach Vocabulary in EVERY
Subject Area!
Anticipate Student Needs!
Don’t Assume Anything!
– Consistently Review
(Flash Cards, Game Format)
– Teach Parts of Speech
(Word Function)
– Review Multiple Meanings as
Necessary
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
49
Implications for Instruction
- Have Students Repeat Words
- Students Use Words in Orally
Generated Sentences
- Avoid Assignments/Class Work
Involving Predominantly Copying –
Require More Active Learning
Assessment:
– Don’t Count Spelling Errors
on Non-spelling Tests
– Oral Assessments
– Vary Test Formatting
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
50
Teaching Strategies for Errors
in Form
– Provide Opportunities to Practice
– Ask Clarification Questions:
 Do You Mean ____ Or ____?
 “If I Understand Correctly, You Said ___”
– Paraphrase the Response:
“So You’re Saying…”
– “I’m Having Trouble Understanding”
– Ask Another Student to Reverbalize
– Analogy Between Handwriting Legibility
and Speech Articulation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
51
Teaching Strategies for Errors
in Form

Errors In Production:
– Provide Validation Rather Than “That’s
Wrong”….That’s Very Close” Instead
– Present ‘Sound-Symbol’ Cues
– Use Gestural and/or Semantic Cues
– Use Synonyms/Antonyms as Applicable
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
52
Teaching Strategies for Errors in
Form

Syntax Errors:
– Simple Sentences - Complex
Sentences - Compound Sentences
– Use of Templates to Practice Correct
Word Order (Structured Speech,
Spontaneous Speech, Structured
Writing, Spontaneous Writing)
– Gradual Elimination of the Templates
– Provide Lists of Starter Words for
Adverb Phrases: A ‘Menu’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
53
Teaching Strategies for Errors
in Content

Typical Receptive and Production Errors:
– Omission of Suffix Endings
– Confusion of Suffix Endings
– Omission of ‘Function Words’
– Subject-verb Agreement
– Confusion of Subject-Object Pronouns
– Use of Participles
– Irregular Past Tense
– Pluralization
– Comparative/Superlative Adjectives
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
54
Teaching Strategies for Errors in
Content






Disconnect Between Receptive
Language and Production
Grammar Instruction
Fluency Drills - Highlight Element You
Are Trying To Remediate
Provide Practice With Oral Sentence
Production/Written Sentence
Production
Provide Lists Of Verb Conjugations
Provide Lists Of Subject/Object
Pronouns
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
55
Teaching Strategies for Errors
in Content







Fluency Drills - Highlight the Element You
are Trying to Remediate
Provide Practice with Oral Sentence
Production/Written Sentence Production
Provide Lists of Verb Conjugations
Provide Lists of Subject/Object Pronouns
Flash Cards - Matching Suffix to Word
Function
Direct Instruction on Word Derivatives
Provide Lists of Adjectives (Menu)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
56
Teaching Strategies for Errors in
Content

Multisensory Grammar Instruction:
Project Read Framing Your Thoughts
www.projectread.com
Neuhaus Multisensory Grammar
www.neuhaus.com
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
57
Teaching Strategies for Errors in
Content for Older Students

Directly Teach Sentence Combining:
– Use of ‘And’- Compound Subject,
Predicate
– Use of ‘And’ ‘But’ ‘So’ - Compound
Sentences
– Use of Correlative Conjunctions:
‘Neither/Nor’; ‘Not Only/But Also’;
‘Either/Or’; ‘Whether/Or’
– Use of Connectives (Transition Words/
Phrases)
– Adjective Placement Prior to Noun
– Break Apart Combined Sentences into
their Component Parts
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
58
Teaching Strategies for Errors in
Content for Older Students

Directly Teach Elimination of Passive Voice
– Use Active Verb Instead
– Introduce Use of Appositive

Use Commonly Confused Words
by William W. Gentile, Sr.
www.walch.com

MODEL, MODEL, MODEL!!!
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
59
Strategies to Teach Vocabulary


Look IN the word, AROUND the word
– Affixes
– Identification of the Part of Speech/
Function of word
– Identification of Roots/Combined Forms
– Use Context
Create a Semantic Map
– Antonyms/Synonyms
– Definition
– Examples
– Multiple Meanings
– Linguistic Structure
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
60
Strategies to Teach Vocabulary






Oral/Written Sentence Formulation with
Illustration
Collins CoBuild Dictionary
www.collins.co.uk
Vanilla Vocabulary
www.ganderpublications.com
Roget’s Super Thesaurus by Marc
McCutcheon (Writer’s Digest Books)
Getting Into Words by Shira Lubliner
www.brookespublishing.com
Directly teach homophones,
homographs, heteronyms
(2 pronunciations - read/read
Accent changes - conduct, object)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
61
Strategies to Teach Idioms and
Figurative Language

What Are We Talking About??
– Hyperbole
– Idiom
– Metaphor
– Onomatopoeia
– Personification
– Simile
– Slang
– Proverb
– Dialect
– Figures Of Speech: Allegory, Irony,
Euphemisms
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
62
Strategies to Teach Idioms and
Figurative Language






Use Literature/Other Media Formats:
– Prose/Poetry
– Advertisements, Newspapers
Direct Instruction/Multiple Exposures
Illustrations
Dictionary of Idioms by Marvin Terban
www.scholastic.com
Figurative Language: A Comprehensive
Program by Kathleen A. Gorman-Gard
(Thinking Publications)
Webster’s New World American Idioms
Handbook by Gail Brenner (Wiley
Publishing)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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Teaching Strategies for Errors
in Use

Improving Discourse - Written Language:
– Practice in Maintenance of Discourse
on Topic - Use of Discourse
Connectors, Transitions, Terminators
– Practice in Oral Summarizing Identification of Main Idea and
Supporting Details, Use of Discourse
Connectors (Use of Template)
– Practice Providing Descriptive
Information (Use of Template)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
65
Teaching Strategies for Errors in
Use
- Practice in expressing:
 Comparisons/Contrasts
 Explaining a Process
 Describing Cause/Effect
 Opinions
- Eliminate Open-Ended Questioning,
Provide Multiple Choice Responses,
Cueing, Brainstorming, Modeling
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
66
Questions and Discussion
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007)
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