Course Specifications
A Basic Information
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Course Title:
Heat Engine and Combustion (B) Code:MPE321
Lecture: 2 Tutorial: 2
Practical: 0
Total: 4
Program on which the course is given:
B.Sc. Mechanical
Engineering (Power)
Major or minor element of program:
Major
Department offering the program: Mechanical Engineering
Department
Department offering the course: Mechanical Engineering
Department
Academic year / level: Third Year / Second Semester
Date of specifications approval: 10/5/2006
B- Professional Information
1- Overall aims of course
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By the end of the course the students will be able to:
Identify the different types of fuels and their properties.
- Understand the concepts and principles of the chemical
reactions.
- Understand the basic principles of the chemical and the
phase equilibrium.
- Apply the first and second law of thermodynamics on
chemical reactions.
- Know the different types of flames and their theories.
- Know the construction and operation of the industrial
furnaces and their applications.
- Know the factors affecting the furnaces performance.
2-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
a) Knowledge and Understanding:
 a.5) Methodologies of solving engineering
problems, data collection interpretation.
 a.8) Current engineering technologies as related
to disciplines.
 a.13) Fundamentals of thermal and fluid
processes.
 a.18) Mechanical power and energy engineering
contemporary issues.
 a.19) Basic theories and principles of some other
engineering and mechanical engineering
disciplines providing support to mechanical power
and energy disciplines
2-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
b) Intellectual Skills
 b.1) Select appropriate mathematical and computerbased methods for modeling and analyzing
problems.
 b.5) Assess and evaluate the characteristics and
performance of components, systems and processes
 b.7) Solve engineering problems, often on the basis
of limited and possibly contradicting information.
 b.11) Analyze results of numerical models and
appreciate their limitations.
 b.13) Evaluate mechanical power and energy
engineering design, processes, and performance and
propose improvements.
2-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
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Professional and Practical Skills
c.1) Apply knowledge of mathematics, science,
information technology, design, business context
and engineering practice to solve engineering
problems.
c.12) Prepare and present technical reports.
c.16) Describe the basic thermal and fluid
processes mathematically and use the computer
software for their simulation and analysis.
1-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
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General and Transferable Skills
d.3) Communicate effectively.
d.4) Demonstrate efficient IT capabilities.
d.7) Search for information and engage in lifelong self learning discipline.
3- Contents
No
Topic
1
Fuel types and properties
Chemical reactions
Theoretical and actual
combustion processes
Enthaply of formation, enthalpy
of reaction
1st and 2nd law analysis of
combustion processes
Chemical equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium
(continued)
Phase equilibrium
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
No. of
hours
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
ILOs
Teaching / learning methods and
strategies
Lecture
Lecture – tutorial
a.8, c.12,d.4,d.7
a.5, a.13, b.5, b.7,
b.13, c.1
Assessment method
Report
Assignment
a.5, a.13, b.5, b.7,
b.13, c.1
a.5, a.13, b.5, b.7,
b.13, c.1
a.13,b.7, c.1
a.13,b.7, c.1
Lecture – tutorial
Assignment
Lecture – tutorial
Quiz
Lecture – tutorial
Lecture – tutorial
Assignment
Quiz
a.13,b.7, c.1
Lecture – tutorial
Assignment
Assignment
9
Laminar premixed flames
2
Mid-term exam
a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, c.1,
Lecture – tutorial
c.12,c.16, d.3,d.7
Quiz - Report
Laminar diffusion flames
2
a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, c.1,
c.12,c.16, d.3,d.7
Lecture – tutorial
10
Turbulent premixed and nonpremixed flames
Assignment
2
a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, c.1,
c.12,c.16, d.3,d.7
Lecture – tutorial
11
Introduction to industrial
furnaces
Assignment
2
a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, b.13,
c.1,c.12, d.4, d.7
Lecture – tutorial
12
Heat transfer in industrial
furnaces
Quiz
2
a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, b.13,
c.1,c.12, d.4, d.7
Lecture – tutorial
13
Saving energy in industrial
furnacs
Assignment - Report
2
a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, b.13,
c.1,c.12, d.4, d.7
Lecture – tutorial
14
15
Final exam
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Teaching and Learning Methods
__√__ Lectures
_____ Practical training / laboratory
_____ Seminar / workshop
____ Class activity
__√__ Tutorial
_____ Case study
__√__ Assignments / homework
Other : Self study
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Student Assessment Methods
________ Assignments to assess knowledge and intellectual
skills. .
________ Quiz to assess knowledge, intellectual and professional
skills.
________ Mid-term exam to assess knowledge, intellectual,
professional and general skills.
________ Oral exam to assess knowledge, intellectual, professional
and general skills.
________ Final exam to assess knowledge, intellectual, professional
and general skills.
Other: Self study to assess knowledge, intellectual, professional and
general skills.
1.Assessment schedule
Assessment 1 on weeks 2, 5, 9, 11
Assessment 2 Quizzes on weeks 4, 6, 10, 13
Assessment 3 Mid-term exam on week 8
Assessment 4 Oral Exam on week 14
Assessment 5 Final exam on week 15
Weighting of Assessments
Mid- Term Examination
Final- Term
Examination
Oral Examination
Practical Examination
Semester Work
Other
Total
15%
05%
05%
100%
15%
60%
00%
8- List of References
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8.1- G. Van Wylen, R. Sonntag and C.
Borgnakke, "Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics", Jhon Wiley &Sons. 1994.
8.2-.Yunis, A. Cengle, and Michael A. Boles,
“Thermodynamics- an Engineering Approach”
Fifth edition,
8.3-.J. Warnatz · U. Maas · R.W. Dibble,
“Combustion”, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg 1996, 1999, 2001
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Facilities Required for Teaching and learning
Lecture room
Presentation board, computer and data show
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Course coordinator:
Course instructor:
Head of department:
Prof. Dr. Ramadan Y. Sakr
Prof. Dr. Ramadan Y. Sakr
Prof. Dr. Maher G. A. Higazy
Date: 26/10/ 2011
Fuels & Fuels Properties
Lecture 1
Crude Oil
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Found in rock formations that were ocean
floors.
Organic matter from seas became trapped
by sediments at ocean floor.
Progressing cracking of the molecules and
elimination of oxygen turned organic
matter into petroleum.
Crude Oil
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Petroleum is made of 86% carbon and
14% hydrogen.
Hydrocarbon molecules are accompanied
by dirt, water, sulfur and other impurities.
Crude oil must be refined to produce
suitable engine fuels.
Fig. 5.1: Molecular Structures of
Some Hydrocarbon Fuel Families
Fig. 5.2: Flow Diagram for Typical
Petroleum Refinery
Fig. 5.3: Distillation Curve for
Crude Oil.
Distillation Temperatures
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30 to 230 C for Gasoline
230 to 370 C for Diesel
Most refineries utilize “cracking units”
where catalysts at high temperatures and
pressures crack the larger hydrocarbon
molecules into smaller ones shifting
production towards gasoline.
Fractionating towers allow smaller
molecules to condense out at cooler
temperatures in the upper portion of the
tower.
Ideal Combustion
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All of the H in fuel is converted to
H20.
All of the C in fuel is converted to
CO2.
Air is 21% O and 79% N by volume.
Combustion of Gasoline
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Mixture
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For gasoline…

3.51  11.54
A/ F 
 15.1 : 1
1
Table 5.2: Representative Fuel
Molecules
Fig.1-1 Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Fig.1-2 Alicyclic and aromatic hydrocarbo
Fig. 1-3 Structural formulae for oxygenous hydrocarbons
Fig. (1-4) Boiling graph for gasoline and diesel fuel, as well as kerosene and water
Definition of the octane number (ON) for gasoline fuels
For the determination of ignition performance, we use a so-called
comparison fuel, i.e. a two component fuel consisting of
The octane number is defined as the isooctane fraction of the comparison fuel.
Definition of the cetane number (CN) for diesel fuels
In determining ignition performance, we use a comparison fuel, which is, in
this case, a two component fuel composed of:
A fuel can be considered as a finite resource of chemical
potential energy, i.e., energy stored in the molecular structure of
particular compounds that may be released via complex chemical
reactions.
Some of the basic ideal combustion engineering characteristics
of a fuel include:
High energy density (content)
High heat of combustion (release)
Good thermal stability (storage)
Low vapor pressure (volatility)
Nontoxicity (environmental impact)
THE FUEL-ENGINE INTERFACE
Gasoline Engine Exhaust
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SI engines are often operated with “rich”
air/fuel mixtures to produce more power –
inadequate oxygen supply results in
production of CO (not all carbon is
converted to CO2).
Even with lean mixtures, CO is still
produced. DO NOT OPERATE GASOLINE
ENGINES IN CONFINED SPACES!!!
Diesel Air/Fuel Ratios
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Stoichiometric air/fuel mixture for CI
engines 14.9:1.
However, most CI engines are operated
with a leaner air/fuel ration and therefore
free oxygen is often found in the exhaust.
Diesel Engine Exhaust
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Small quantities of unburned fuel escape in
gaseous form.
At high temperatures N reacts with O to form
NO and NO2 (together these are known as
NOx).
Federal government has established limits on
CO, NOx and unburned hydrocarbon in engine
exhaust – Tier I through IV Regulations.
Emission Regulations (EPA)
Example 5.1
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What is the air/fuel ratio and the exhaust
products when ethanol is used as an
engine fuel?
Solution
C2 H 6O  3O2  11.28 N 2  11.28 N 2  2CO2  3H 2O
1(46) 3(32) 11.28(28) 11.28(28) 2(44) 3(18)
1 2.087 6.866 6.866 1.913 1.174
A / F  (2.087  6.866) / 1  8.95
General Combustion Equations
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Equations are cast in a form that includes a
measure of “richness,”
A / Fstoich
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A / Factual
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where f is the “richness” term.
General Combustion Equations
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The “General Combustion Equation” is,
C x H y Oz 
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U
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O2  3.76
U
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N 2  3.76
U
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N 2  R  CO2  V  CO  W  O2 
y
H 2O
2
where x, y and z are the relative number of
atoms of C, H and O, respectively; and U, R, V
and W are defined in the following relationships.
General Combustion Equations
y z
U  x 
4 2
R  x when   1
 1
R  x  2u1   when   1
 
V  0 when   1
 1
V  2U 1   when   1
 
1 
W  U   1 when   1
 
W  0 when   1
General Combustion Equations
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The actual A/F ratio becomes,
137.3U
A / Factual 
 12 x  y  16 z 
General Combustion Equations
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The theoretical dry exhaust gas
concentrations (volumetric basis) become,
3.76U
CONC N 2 
T
R
CONCCO2 
T
V
CONCCO 
T
W
CONCO2 
T
3.76U
T
 R V W
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Blended Fuels
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Blended fuels are common – for example
blends of 10 % ethanol and 90% gasoline
are used to meet EPA requirements for
oxygenated fuels in regions of the country
with impaired air quality.
Blended Fuels
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The composite fuel molecule can be estimated
using,
s fsmp
rs 
 p f p ms
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where the “p” subscript denotes the primary
fuel, and “s” the secondary; and variable f is
the faction (decimal form) of either fuel.
Blended Fuels
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The resulting composite fuel molecule becomes,
C xc H yc Ozc
where
xc  rs xs  xp
yc  rs ys  yp
zc  rs zs  zp
Octane Ratings
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Octane is a measure of gasoline’s
resistance to “knock.”
“Knock” is the uncontrolled release of
energy
when
combustion
initiates
somewhere other than the spark plug.
Symptoms of engine “knock” include an
audible “knocking” or “pining” sound
under acceleration.
Fig. 5.5: Knock in SI engines.
Causes of Engine Knock
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Knock is caused when the temperature in
the cylinder reaches the self ignition
temperature (SIT) of the end gases.
The end gases do not readily ignite, rather
there is an ignition delay caused by preflame reactions.
Engine knock is more prevalent under
conditions that include:
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Lean air/fuel ratios
High compression ratios
Methods to Reduce Engine Knock
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Use wedge shaped combustion chambers
to cool end gases more readily.
Use gasoline with higher octane ratings –
these ratings are associated with gasoline
that has few straight chain carbons have
longer ignition delay times.
Octane Rating Measurement
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Procedure developed by the Cooperative
Fuels Research Committee (CFR).
The committee proposed a single cylinder
SI engine to measure octane – the CFR
engine has an adjustable compression
ratio.
Engine is driven at a constant speed with
an electric motor.
Octane Rating Measurement
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Octane ratings are obtained by comparing fuel in
question to iso-octane (Octane Rating of 100)
and heptane (Octane Rating of 100).
CR is adjusted until “knocking” is detected with
fuel being tested.
Blends of iso-octane and heptane are tested
until the same level of knock is obtained.
Octane rating is % of iso-octane in test blend.
Fig. 5.6: CFR Engine
Octane Ratings
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CFR developed initial method (Motor Octane
Number – MON).
ASTM developed a new method (Research
Octane Number – RON).
RON octane ratings are 8 points low than MON
for most gasoline.
Most retailers report the Anti-Knock Index which
is an average of MON and RON.
Octane ratings of fuel are adjusted for elevation
– lower atmospheric pressure reduces the
tendency for engine knock to occur.
Cetane Ratings and CI Engines
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Octane rating is not a good way to predict
“knock” in CI engines.
Combustion in diesel engines consists of a
two part delay – physical and chemical.
Physical - the fuel is injected and
atomized.
Chemical - process proceeds with a preflame chemical reaction, similar to that of
SI engines.
Fig. 5.7: Critical Compression
Ratios and Temperatures
Combustion Process
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Pre-Mix Combustion – prepared mixture
burns rapidly after compression ignition.
Diffusion Combustion – fuel vapor diffuses
into burn-out zones from one side while
oxygen diffuses from the other sustaining
the combustion process.
Diffusion process is much slower than the
pre-mix. Pre-mix generate characteristic
diesel rattle.
Fig. 5.8: Energy release from
CI fuels.
Altering Knock in CI Engines
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Ignition delay controls the relative release
of energy between the two phases of
combustion – a longer delay results in
more energy produces in the pre-mix
phase.
Since “knock” occurs when more energy is
released at the start of combustion, it
follows that “knock” is reduced with short
delay periods.
Cetane Ratings
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Cetane rating are an indication of the
fuel’s anti-knock resistance for CI engines.
Fuels with high cetane ratings are created
by increasing the proportion of long chain
molecules, thereby reducing the ignition
delay.
Fuels with high Octane Rating have low
cetane ratings!
Cetane Ratings
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CFR cetane rating process is similar to the
Octane process with a couple of
differences:
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Cetane and hyptamethylnonane
reference fuels.
are
the
Hyptamethylnonane has a cetane rating of 15.
Effect of Cetane Rating
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If cetane rating is too low, the ignition delay results in
hard starting (combustion after piston is moving
downward) and characteristic ”white smoke.”
High cetane ratings start the combustion process to
soon, and some the fuel is not volatized and does not
burn.
“Black smoke” in heavily loaded engines is a symptom of
high cetane ratings.
Minimum cetane rating for CI engines is 40 according to
SAE.
Commercial fuels seldom exceed 50.
Cetane rating should never exceed 60.
Table 5: limiting values for
diesel fuels.
Fuel Properties
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Standards Organizations
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SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers
ASTM – American Society for the Testing of
Materials
API – American Petroleum Institute
Specific Gravity
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A measure of the density of liquid fuels at 15.6 C as
compared with water at the same temperature.
API devised the following scale,
141.5
API 
 131.5
SG
o
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where SG is the specific gravity.
A hydrometer, calibrated in APIo, is used to
measure the specific gravity.
Fig. 5.9: Fuel hydrometer.
Heating Value of Fuel
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Determined using bomb calorimeter.
Bomb calorimeter measures “low heating
value” – void of energy required to
evaporate water.
“High heating value” is found by adding
the latent heat of vaporization of water to
“low heating value.”
Table 5.4: Properties of
selected fuels.
Heating Value Estimates for
Petroleum Fuels
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Heating values are estimated from the
API gravity,
H g  42,860  93   API  10 (kJ / kg)
H n  0.7190  H g  10,000 (kJ / kg)
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where Hg is the gross (high) heating
value and Hn is the net (low) heating
value.
Fuel Volatility
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Volatility refers to the ability of the fuel to
vaporize at lower temperatures.
Reid vapor pressure and distillation curves
are indicators of fuel volatility.
Reid vapor pressure (RVP) is a
standardized test using bomb calorimeter
at 37.1 C – pressure is measured using a
suitable gage.
Fuel Volatility
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Prior to 1990 winter gasoline volatility
ranged from 60 to 80 kPa.
Summer gasoline was 10 to 15 kPa lower
to reduce the potential for vaporization.
Clean Air Act (1990) limits maximum
vapor pressures to 56 kPa in the large
Northern U.S. cities and 49 kPa in large
Southern U.S. cities.
Distillation Tests
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100 ml sample is distilled.
Fuel temperature is recorded for first
condensed drop (boiling point), and then
at 10 ml intervals during the distillation
process.
T10, T50 and T90 temperatures are
important to engine characteristics which
include easy of starting, warm-up, and
crankcase dilution and fuel economy,
respectively.
Fig. 5.10: Fuel distillation
aparataus.
Adjusting Distillation Temperatures
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Gasoline sold during the winter must be
more volatile for easy starting in the
winter.
Gasoline sold for use in high elevations
must be less volatile to avoid “vapor lock”
in the summer.
Volatility is adjusted by adding butane and
lighter hydrocarbons.
Adjusting Distillation Temperatures

For diesel engines:
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Low T10 values aids cold weather starting.
Low T50 values minimize smoke and odor.
Low T90 values reduce crankcase dilution and
improve fuel economy.
Fig. 5.11: Distillation curves.
Fuel Viscosity
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Viscosity is a measure of the flow
resistance of liquid.
Fuel viscosity must be high enough to
insure good lubrication of injection pump
mechanisms in CI engines.
Fuel viscosity must be low enough to
insure proper atomization at the time of
injection.
Cloud and Pour Points
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Cloud point is the temperature at which
crystals begin to form in the fuel.
Pour point is the temperature at which the
fuel ceases to flow.
Cloud point are typically 5 to 8 C higher
than pour point,
Not an issue for gasoline.
Values are important for diesel.
Fuel Impurities - Sulfur

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Sulfur oxides – can convert to acids which
corrode engine parts and cause increased
wear.
Assessed by immersing copper strip in fuel
for three hours, then comparing corrosion
to standard strips.
Fuel Impurities - Ash
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Ash – small solid particles or water-soluble
metals found fuels.
Defined as un-burned fuel residue left
behind.
Can cause accelerated wear of close-fitting
injection system parts.
Fuel Impurities – Water and
Sediment

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Moisture can condense in fuel storage
tanks, or seep in from underground leaks.
Fuel should be bright and clear, and
visibly free of water and sediment.
Fuel Impurities - Gum


Gum can form in gasoline, leaves behind
deposits on carburetors. Gum is dissolved
by gasoline – more prevalent in gasoline
that is made by cracking.
Antioxidants are now added to both diesel
and gasoline to extend storage life without
gum formation.
Fuel Additives


Until 1970, gasoline contained TEL
(tetraethyl lead). TEL was used as an
octane booster.
MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) is often
substituted as an octane booster – could
be phased out/banned by EPA soon.
Table 5.5: Gasoline additives
Fuel Storage


Fuels classified according to flammability –
gasoline is more dangerous with a flash
point of -40 C.
Major
concern
with
regard
to
environmental contamination
Fig. 5.12: Lubricating Theory
F f  f  Fn
Fig. 5.13: Action of Journal
Bearings
a) at rest, b) in mixed-film lubrication, and c) in hydrodynamic lubrication
Fig. 5.14: Newtonian Viscosity
v
F  A
h
Fig. 5.15: Cannon-Fenske
Viscometer
Reporting of Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity (n) is reported as,




where m is absolute (or dynamic)
viscosity, and r is the fluid mass density.
Typical Units

Centipoise (cP) was the popular unit of dynamic
viscosity.
1 cP 1 mPa  s

Centistoke (cSt) was the popular unit of
kinematic viscosity.
1 cSt  1 mm / s
2
Table 5.6: SAE Motor Oil
Classification
Motor Oil Service Ratings

“S”- SERVICE CLASSIFICATIONS FOR GASOLINE ENGINES
 SH- For 1994 Gasoline Engine Service -- Classification SH was adopted in 1992
and recommended for gasoline engines in passenger cars and light trucks
starting in 1993 model year. This category supercedes the performance
requirements of API SG specification for 1989-1992 models, which is now
obsolete. Applications that call for an API service classification SG can use the SH
specification. The specification addresses issues with deposit control, oxidation,
corrosion, rust and wear and replaces.
 SJ- For 1997 Gasoline Engine Service -- Classification SJ was adopted in 1996
and recommended for gasoline engines in passenger cars and light trucks
starting in 1997 model year. Applications specifying API SH can use the newer
API SJ service classification. Note that where applicable certain letters in the
sequence will be skipped to prevent confusion with other standards. In this case,
SI was skipped since industrial oils are currently rated according to SI
classifications.
 SL- For 2001 and Newer Gasoline Engine Service- Current Spec. -Recommended for gasoline engines in passenger cars and light trucks starting in
July 2001. SL oils are engineered to provide improved high temperature deposit
control and lower oil consumption. Applications specifying API SJ can use the
new API SL service classification. Note that some SL rated oils may also meet the
latest ILSAC specification and/or qualify as energy conserving. SL is the latest
specification.
Motor Oil Service Ratings

“C”- COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATIONS FOR DIESEL ENGINES

CF-For 1994 Off-Road Indirect Injected Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category CF
denotes service typical of off-road, indirect injected diesel engines and other diesel engines
that use a broad range of fuel types, including those using fuel with higher sulfur content
(over 0.5% wt sulfur fuel). Effective control of piston deposits, wear and corrosion of
copper-containing bearings is essential for these engines, which may be naturally aspirated,
turbocharged or supercharged. Oils designated for this service may also be used when API
Service Category CD or CE is recommended. CF is a current specification.
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CF-2- FOR 1994 Severe Duty 2-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category
CF-2 denotes service typical of two-stroke cycle engines (such as Detroit Diesel) requiring
highly effective control over cylinder and ring-face scuffing and deposits. Oils designated for
this service have been in existence since 1994 and may also be used when API Service
Category CD-II is recommended. These oils do not necessarily meet the requirements of CF
or CF-4, unless they pass the test and performance requirements for these categories. CF-2
is a current specification.
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CF-4- For 1990 Diesel Engine Service -- Service typical of severe duty turbocharged, 4-stroke
cycle diesel engines, particularly late models designed to give lower emissions. These
engines are usually found in on-highway, heavy-duty truck applications. API CF-4 oils
exceed the requirement of CE category oils and can be used in place of earlier CC, CD and
CE oils. CF-4 oils provide for improved control of piston deposits and oil consumption. The
CF-4 classification meets Caterpillar’s 1k engine requirements, as well as earlier Mack Trucks
(T-6 & T-7) and Cummins (NTC-400) multi-cylinder engine test criteria. When combined with
the appropriate “S” category, they can be used in gasoline and diesel powered cars and light
trucks as specified by the vehicle and/or engine manufacturer.
Motor Oil Service Ratings
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CG-4- For 1995 Severe Duty Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category CG-4 describes
oils for use in high speed, four-stroke cycle diesel engines used in highway and off-road
applications, where the fuel sulfur content may vary from less than 0.05% by weight to less
than 0.5% by weight. CG-4 oils provide effective control over high temperature piston
deposits, wear, corrosion, foaming, oxidation stability and soot accumulation. These oils are
especially effective in engines designed to meet 1994 exhaust emissions standards and may
also be used in engines requiring API Service Categories CD, CE and CF-4. Oils designated
for this service have been in existence since 1995. CG-4 is a current specification
CH-4- For 1999 Severe Duty Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category CH-4 describes
oils for use in high speed, four-stroke cycle diesel engines used in highway and off-road
applications. CH-4 oils provide effective control over engine deposits, wear, corrosion,
oxidation stability and soot accumulation. These oils are especially effective in engines
designed to meet 1999 emission standards and may also be used in engines requiring API
Service Category CG-4. Oils designated for this service have been in existence since 1999.
CH-4 oils are engineered for use with diesel fuels ranging in sulfur content up to 0.5%
weight. CH-4 is a current specification.
CL-4- For 2002 Severe Duty Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category CL-4 describes
oils for use in those high speed, four-stroke cycle diesel engines designed to meet 2004
exhaust emissions standards and was implemented in October 2002. These oils are
engineered for all applications where diesel fuel sulfur content is up to 0.05% by
weight. These oils are very effective at sustaining engine durability where EGR ( Exhaust
Gas Recirculation) and other exhaust emissions systems are used and provide for optimum
protection in the areas of corrosive wear, low and high temperature stability, soot handling
properties, piston deposit control, valvetrain wear, oxidative thickening and foaming and
viscosity loss due to shear. API CL-4 oils are superior in performance to those meeting APICH-4, CG-4 and CF-4 and can be used and will effectively lubricate diesel engines specifying
those API service Classifications.
Table 5.8: Lubricating Oil Additives
Fig. 5.16: Pressure-Feed and
Splash Lubrication System.