The Sociological Perspectives

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The Sociological Perspectives

• The Structural/Functional Perspective

• The Conflict Perspective

• Symbolic/Interactionist Perspective

Structural - Functional

• Society is viewed as a complex system of parts (structures) that interact to perform various necessary functions

• Shared values, norms, attitudes and beliefs (consensus)

• Change is generally viewed as disruptive and gradual

• Macrosociology

Conflict Theory

• Views society as a struggle for resources and power

• Change is inevitable, often beneficial and can be violent

• Conflict between the classes determines social change

• Some groups prosper at the expense of others

• Conflict is universal; social consensus is limited and inequality is widespread

• Macrosociology

Symbolic Interactionism

• Studies society through interactions within individual and small groups

• Interaction between individuals is negotiated through shared symbols, gestures and nonverbal communications

• Humans are social animals and require interaction

• Asks the questions” “How do individuals experience one another?” “How do they interpret the meaning of these interactions?” and “How do people construct a sense of self and the society as a whole?”

• Microsociology

Famous Theorists

(you should know)

Auguste Comte

(French)(1798-1857)

• Coined the term “sociology”

• Believed society could be studied like any other science

• Key concepts: positivism, sociology the “queen” of sciences, social engineering

Harriet Martineau

English (1802-1876)

• Translated A. Comte’s work into English

• Concerned with social change and the plight of women and children in English factories during the early phases of industrialization

• First acknowledged female sociologist

• Examined emerging American society (c 1834)

Émile Durkheim

(French) (1858-1917)

• Founded sociology as an academic discipline

• Famous for his study on suicides (1897)

• Use of statistics in sociology

• Key concepts: social facts, social structure social solidarity, collective conscience, mechanical and organic solidarity, anomie

• Structural/functionalist theorist

Karl Marx

(German) (1818-1883)

• Founder of political / economic theory of socialism (communism)

• Considered the founder of the conflict perspective

• Wrote the Communist Manifesto and co wrote Das Kapital (with

Friedrich Engels)

• Key concepts: proletariat, bourgeoisie, capitalists, social class, dialectics (thesis, antithesis, synthesis)

Max Weber

(German) (1864-1920)

• Believed that sociologist could never capture the reality of society but should focus on ideal types that best capture the essential features of aspects of social reality

• Key concepts: bureaucracy, verstehen , rationalization of the modern world, people are becoming prisoners of new technology, loss of individuality

Herbert Spencer

(English) (1820-1903)

• Structural/Functionalist

• Coined the term “survival of the fittest” in reference to human social arrangements (Social Darwinism)

• Advocated against social reform efforts to poor people because it disrupts the natural selection process of evolution

Jane Addams

(American) (1880-1935)

• Won the first Nobel Peace Prize (1931) given to an

American sociologist

• Founded Hull House for the poor in Chicago

• Influenced the “Chicago School” of applied sociology

(social problems)

• Pioneered the study of social problems

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W. E. B. DuBois

(American) (1868-1963)

• First Afro-American PhD graduate of Harvard University

• Concerned with the social position of African-Americans in US society.

• Wrote The Philadelphia Negro (1899) on race relations

• Used statistics to examine racial discrimination against blacks

Talcott Parsons

(American) (1902-1979)

• Reintroduced the theories of European sociologists while teaching at Harvard University

• Structural/Functionalist

• Abstract “ivory tower” theoretician

• Emphasis on empirical research--not social reform

C. Wright Mills

(American) (1916-1962)

• Taught at Columbia University

• Marxist, structural/functionalist theorist

• Key concepts: power elite, radical social change, social injustices, applied sociology, the “sociological imagination”

Robert K. Merton

(American) (1910-2002)

• Taught at Columbia University

• Sought to bridge the European “grand” theories and a more focused research style

• Structural/Functionalist

• Key concepts: manifest & latent functions, “Strain Theory” of deviance, dysfunctions

George Herbert Mead

(American) (1863-1961)

• Symbolic/Interactionist theorist

• Believed that the self was a social product acquired by observing and assimilating the identities of others

• Key concepts: “I” & “me”, significant other, generalized other, role taking, preparatory stage, play stage, game stage

Charles Horton Cooley

(American) (1864-1929)

• Symbolic interactionist theorist

• We develop a sense of who we are in society based upon interaction with others and how we feel others perceive us

• The “Looking Glass Self”

Erving Goffman

(American) (1922-1982)

• Symbolic interactionist theorist

• Believed we play roles and present a “face” for public view

• Key concepts: dramaturgical approach, frontstage & backstage selves, presentation of self

Sigmund Freud

(German)(1856-1939)

• Psychoanalyst

• Key concepts: unconscious, id, ego, superego, psycho-sexual stages, psychoanalysis, ego defense mechanisms, free association.

dream interpretation, seduction theory, libido, libidinal energy

Erik Erikson

(German/American)(1902-1994)

• Psychologist

• Eight Stages of Man (Psycho-social stages)

• Focused on ego conflict through the life span and how they are resolved

Lawrence Kohlberg

(American)(1927-1988)

• Psychologist

• Expanded Piaget’s theory of moral development in children

• Key concepts: Stages of Moral Development, the “Heinz scenario”

Carol Gilligan

(American) (1936- )

• Social psychologist: former student of Lawrence Kohlberg

• Took a feminist perspective to moral reasoning, author of

In a Different Voice , which proposes that males and females have different moral reasoning

• Key concepts: caring perspective (females); justice & law (males)

Albert Bandura

(American) (1925- )

• Social (cognitive) psychologist, performed classic study of imitation and aggressive behaviors in children.

• Key concepts: social learning theory, imitation, models, vicarious reinforcement, expectancies self efficacy, reciprocal determinism

B(urrhus) F(redrick) Skinner

(American) (1904-1990)

• Psychologist, learning theorist, behaviorist. Taught at Harvard

University, probably the most famous American psychologist

• Wrote several books including: The Behavior of Organisms,

Beyond Freedom and Dignity, and Walden Two

• Key concepts: operant learning, positive & negative reinforcement, punishment, shaping, schedules of reinforcement, behavior modification, the Skinner Box

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