Chapter 10
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Motives – needs, wants,
desires leading to goaldirected behavior
Drive theories – an
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Incentive theories –
internal state of tension
motivates an organism to
engage in activities that
should reduce this tension;
seeks to maintain
homeostasis, or a state of
equilibrium or stability.
regulation by external stimuli,
i.e stimuli…ice cream, an A,
money, etc.
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Evolutionary theories –
natural selection maximizes
survival and reproductive
success, i.e. affiliation,
achievement, dominance,
aggression, and sex drive in
terms of adaptive value

Arousal theories- people take certain actions to either
decrease or increase levels of arousal; we are motivated to
maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level can vary
based on the individual or the situation. EX. I feel bored, so I’m
going to do my homework. EX. I’ve been out too much, so I’m
going to go home and write in my journal.

Humanistic Theory of Motivation- people are motivated to be
individuals and reach their potential. See Maslow's hierarchy of
needs and self-actualization. EX. I’m going to college because I
know I have unique abilities and a glorious potential in my chosen
field.

General adaptation theories- People are motivated to relieve
stress. Dr. Hans Selye, an endocrinologist, developed a threestage model of the body's response to stress. He called his theory
the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). See next slide.
1.
2.
3.
Alarm Reaction –
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begins when the body recognizes that it must fend off some physical or psychological
danger. Emotions run high.
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Activity of the sympathetic nervous system is increased.

If stimulus disappears, we return to homeostasis. If not . . .
Resistance –
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physical symptoms and other signs of strain appear as we struggle against increasing
psychological disorganization.

If stress is extreme or prolonged, we may turn in desperation to inappropriate coping
techniques and cling to them rigidly, despite evidence they are not working.
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If we succeed in reducing the stress, we return to a normal state. If not . . .
Exhaustion –
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Some people lose touch with reality and show signs of emotional disorder or mental illness
at this stage.
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Others show signs of “burnout” including inability to concentrate, irritability,
procrastination, and a cynical belief that nothing is worthwhile. Some victims of burnout
turn to alcohol or drugs to cope with the stress-induced exhaustion.
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The physiological reactions that prepared us to cope effectively in the alarm and resistance
phases weaken us in the long run.
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If the stress continues, the person may suffer irreparable physical or psychological damage
or even death.
 Biological
vs Social Motives
 Biological: Based on nature’s Big 2:
survival and reproduction. Includes
drive theories (particularly with goal of
returning to homeostasis) and
evolutionary theories.
 Social: Based on wanting to succeed in
your environment, especially in relation
to other people. Includes drive, incentive
theories, and evolutionary theories.
Figure 10.2 The diversity of human motives
Intrinsic motivation: motivation that is driven by an
interest or enjoyment in the task itself; motivation exists
within the individual rather than relying on any external
pressure.
 Extrinsic motivation: motivation that is driven by
external rewards connected to completing the task;
motivation proceeds from the environment.
 The overjustification effect: offers of rewards (extrinsic)
motivation decreases the subject’s intrinsic motivation.
 EX. Sabrina would often help other students, because
she believed that was the right thing to do (intrinsic).
This year, Sabrina’s teacher gives her a green card every
time she helps a student (extrinsic). The next year,
Sabrina’s teacher doesn’t give out green cards. Sabrina in
turn stops helping students (the overjustification effect).

 What’s
the connection between motivation
and emotion?
Emotion and Polygraph Testing

THE POINT: Emotion in NOT JUST mental. It’s physical,
too!
Interesting Facts
 Polygraph tests are no longer admitted as evidence in
court cases.
 Polygraph tests are nonetheless great tools to choose
suspects and track down leads.


So, what comes first? The chicken or the egg?
Does physiology cause emotion, or does emotion cause a
physiological reaction? By the way, how does cognition
play into all of this?
(Spiral) Theories of Emotion Cornell Notes: What
are the primary similarities and differences among
the four major theories of emotion?
 Key
Points
 James-Lange
Theory
 Cannon-Bard
Theory
 Schachter’s Twofactor Theory
 Evolutionary
Theories of
Emotion
Summary:
 Notes
Figure 10.22 Cross-cultural comparisons of people’s ability to recognize emotions from facial expressions
first comes a distinct physiological response, then
comes our experienced emotion.
 Feel afraid because pulse is racing.
 Physical reaction causes emotion. In other
words, you infer emotion semi-consciously from
a physical reaction.

 E.g.
You see a cute guy, your pulse races,
and you feel excited because your pulse is
racing.



our physiological response and experienced
emotion are separate yet simultaneous. One
does not cause the other.
Thalamus sends signals simultaneously to
the cortex (creating consciousness of the
emotion) and the autonomic nervous system
(creating visceral arousal)
E.g. You see a cute guy, the information is
sent to the thalamus, which relays the
signals simultaneously to the cortex and to
the autonomic nervous system. Thus, the
emotion of “excitement” and physical
arousal occur simultaneously.
Experience of emotion grows from our awareness of our
body’s arousal. However, since emotions are physiologically
similar, an emotional experience requires a conscious
interpretation of the arousal.
 The two factors:
(1) autonomic/physical arousal
(2) cognitive interpretation
 You look to external cues to decide what to feel.
 Physical arousal causes you to consciously survey your
surroundings for an explanation of the arousal. Your
conscious interpretation of your surroundings produces
emotion.

 E.g.
You feel autonomic arousal and look around to
see why…if there’s a cute boy, you feel excitement.
Innate reactions with little cognitive interpretation
 Robert Plutchik (1984, 1993) has devised a
model of how primary emotions blend together
to form secondary emotions.
Emotional intensity: diversity

in emotion is a product of
variations in emotional
intensity, as well as blending
of primary emotions. Each
vertical slice is a primary
emotion that can be
subdivides into emotional
expressions of varied
intensity, ranging from most
intense (top) to least intense
(bottom).
Figure 10.24 Primary emotions
 Can
emotion really be figured out
formulaically?
 Maybe not.

Misattribution of arousal can occur when people
misinterpret their autonomic arousal. Dutton
and Aron (1974) conducted a study where they
arranged for young men crossing two bridges to
meet an attractive female with a questionnaire
in hand…one bridge was 10 feet above a stream,
while the other was a swaying, 230 foot
suspension bridge. The suspension bridge men
called the woman for a date significantly more
often than the low bridge men, suggesting
misattribution of arousal as attraction rather
than fear.