THE GROWING SIGNIFICANCE
OF DIASPORAS:
AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE
by
Graeme Hugo
University Professorial Research Fellow
Professor of Geography and Director of the National Centre
for Social Applications of GIS,
The University of Adelaide
Presentation to Fifth Diversity Matters Forum, Monash University Campus,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
19-20 November 2008
Outline of Presentation
• Introduction
• Defining Diaspora
• Transnationalism, International Migration
and Development
• Australia’s Diaspora
• Diasporas in Australia
• Some Implications for Policy
• Conclusion
Defining Diaspora
Diaspora has its origins in the Greek word ‘to
colonise’ and until relatively recently it has
been used to refer largely to a group of
people who are linked by common ethnolinguistic and/or religious bonds who have
left their homeland, usually under some form
of coercion, and who have developed a
strong identity and mutual solidarity in exile.
The Jewish diaspora has been the
classic example (Cohen 1997). In the
contemporary context, with the
acceleration in international mobility, the
term has been used more broadly to
encompass expatriate populations who
are living outside of their home countries
and retain linkages with their origin
countries (Safran 1991; Vertovec 1997).
Distinctions in Diaspora Studies (Reis, 2004)
Reis (2004, 46) distinguishes between two groups
of diaspora theorists: on the one hand are those
who focus on ‘classical’ diaspora based on the
Jewish archetype, while, on the other, are those
who co-mingle contemporary diasporas with
issues of transnationalism and globalisation. It is
the latter, wider conceptualisation which is of
particular relevance to contemporary discussion
of the impacts of emigration on development in
origin countries.
A distinction also has been made
in studies of diaspora ‘between a
symbolic ethnic identity of ‘being’
and a more active ‘diaspora
identity’ requiring involvement’
(Butler 2001, 191-93) with the latter
implying active participation in
activity in the homeland.
Butler (2001) has built on the work of Safran (1991) to
advance a number of criteria which he considers
characterise contemporary diaspora. He argues that
it is not necessary for communities of expatriates to
fulfil all of the criteria but implies that they should
meet most of them. They include:
• Expatriates should be spread over more than one
destination.
• They should retain a relationship with their real or
imagined homeland.
• There should be an awareness of group identity.
• The diaspora should exist beyond the first
generation.
Paradigm Shift in International Migration Research
Permanent Settlement
Transnationalism
Assimilation and
Transnational Ties Between
Integration Within Destination
Nation State
‘Origin’ and ‘Destination’
Focus on Immigration
and Destination
Focus on Both Emigration
and Immigration, Origin and
Destination and Linkages
Between Them
What is the National Population?
Diagrammatic Representation of a National Population
Measuring the Diaspora
• Stocks – Problem from nation state
perspective because by definition they are
absent when the population census is taken
• Flows – Bias in international migration data
toward immigration and against emigration,
few countries collect the latter
• Potential for producing synthetic censuses
of emigrants using several destination
country censuses
Migration and Development
Shift in discourse from a focus on ‘brain
drain’ to an increasing consideration of
the positive effects of emigration through:
• Remittances
• Encouragement of FDI
• Return – permanent, temporary and virtual
• Knowledge transfer
• Trade
The crucial role of the diaspora.
The Australian Diaspora
• Approximately one million people
• Selective of young adults
• Highly skilled and educated
• High level of return
Australia: Permanent Arrivals and Departures, 1959-60 to 2006-07
Source: DIMIA Australian Immigration: Consolidated Statistics and DIAC Immigration Update,
various issues
200,000
60.00
180,000
40.00
120,000
100,000
30.00
80,000
20.00
60,000
40,000
10.00
20,000
0
0.00
1959-60
1961-62
1963-64
1965-66
1967-68
1969-70
1971-72
1973-74
1975-76
1977-78
1979-80
1981-82
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
1989-90
1991-92
1993-94
1995-96
1997-98
1999-2000
2001-02
2003-04
2005-06
Number
140,000
Year
Permanent departures
Permanent arrivals
Departures as % of Arrivals
Percentage
50.00
160,000
Permanent Departures from Australia, 1993-94 to 2006-07
Source: DIAC
Australia: Percent Permanent and Long Term Arrivals
and Departures by Occupation, 1997-98 to 2007-08
Source: DIAC unpublished data
Occupation
1.Manager & Administrators
2.Professionals
3.Associate Professionals
4.Tradespersons
5.Adv Clerical & Sales
6.Intermediate Clerical, Sales & Service
7.Int Production & Transport
8.Elementary Clerical, Sales & Service
9. Labourers
Total
N=
Arrivals
Settler Long Term
11.7
15.6
43.2
46.8
10.3
10.1
13.4
8.3
2.6
2.7
10.6
11.2
2.8
1.5
3.1
2.8
2.3
1.1
100.0
100.0
551,699
1,381,981
Departures
Permanent Long Term
17.8
12.8
40.1
45.2
11.2
10.1
6.9
8.0
3.7
2.9
13.1
13.8
2.2
2.0
3.0
3.1
1.9
2.1
100.0
100.0
363,413
1,068,009
Australia: Age-Sex Structure of Permanent Departures of the
Australia-born, Permanent Arrivals and Australian Residents Long
Term Departures, 2007-08
Source: DIAC unpublished data
Females
Males
65+
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
Age
Permanent
Departures
Australiaborn
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Percent
Males
65+
Females
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
Age
Settler
Arrivals
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Percent
Males
65+
Females
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
Age
Residents
Long Term
Departures
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Percent
2
4
6
8
10
12
Australia: Long-Term Arrivals and Departures of
Australian Residents by Age, 2004-07
Source: DIAC, unpublished data
Age Group
Arrivals
Number
Departures
Percent
Number
Percent
Net
Migration
0-29
30-30
40-49
50-59
60+
143,743
83,494
42,993
25,970
19,040
46.0
26.5
13.6
8.2
6.0
171,884
72,320
35,990
22,836
10,126
59.0
24.8
12.4
7.8
3.5
-28,141
+11,174
+7,003
+3,134
+8,914
Total
315,240
100.0
313,156
100.0
+2,084
Survey of Australian Expatriates:
Intentions to Return to Australia
Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 50; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming
Intend to Return
Do Not Intend to Return
Undecided
Total
Percent
n
Australian
Emigration
Study
2002
One Million
More Survey
2006
US Expatriates
Study
50.7
17.2
32.1
63.5
10.9
25.6
35.7
30.8
33.5
100.0
2,072
100.0
8,744
100.0
1,581
2007
Survey of Australian Expatriates:
Reasons Given for Leaving Australia (Percent)
Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 44; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming
Reason
Better Employment Opportunities
International Experience/Experience New
Culture
Job Transfer, Career Advancement
Family, Marriage
Partner’s Employment
Australian
Emigration
Study
2002
n=2,070
One Million
More Survey
2006
n=9,529
US
Expatriates
Study
2007
n=1,581
42.6
53.9
81.4
36.1
62.7
43.3
23.7
22.3
12.1
19.4
17.4
11.1
44.2
36.8
13.0
Survey of Australian Expatriates: Reasons Given by
Respondents for Intending to Return to Australia
Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming
Lifestyle
Family
Work
Education
Total
Percent
n
Australian
Emigration
Study
2002
One Million
More Survey
2006
US Expatriates
Study
82.9
71.5
15.7
9.8
65.3
77.5
14.9
5.4
61.2
73.5
12.7
4.8
100.0
1,050
100.0
5,637
100.0
1,529
2007
Survey of Australian Expatriates:
Proportion That Still Call Australia Home (Percent)
Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 46; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming
Yes
No
Undecided
I have more than one home
Australian
Emigration
Study
2002
One Million
More Survey
2006
US Expatriates
Study
79.3
16.7
4.0
-
62.8
3.9
4.2
29.1
80.4
6.8
12.8
-
2007
Ways in Which Respondents Keep in Touch With
What is Happening in Australia While Away, 2006
Source: One Million More Survey (n=9,529)
Ways of Keeping in Touch
Regular interaction with family and friends
Regular reading of on-line media
Regular interaction with Australian colleagues
International news channels
Expatriate organisations
Australian journals/magazines
Mailing lists
Other
Percent
92.0
90.7
44.1
35.0
24.1
20.2
11.4
6.3
Australian Expatriates:
Frequency of Visiting Australia 2006
Source: One Million More Survey (n=8,879)
Frequency
More than once per year
Once per year
Once every 1-2 years
Once every 2-3 years
Once every 3-5 years
Less than once each 5 years
Total
Percent
12.3
27.5
30.8
14.6
8.1
6.8
100.0
Australian Expatriates: Responses to Statements
Relating to Contribution to Australia, 2006
Source: One Million More Survey (n=8,879)
Percent Agreeing
Statement
1.
2.
3.
4.
I feel I am an ambassador for my country and I promote
Australia at every opportunity
When people ask me questions about Australia I am
happy to share my knowledge
I am gaining skills and experience that I can take back
to Australia with me if/when I move to Australia to live
I am making contacts overseas for other
Australians/Australian companies
Total
Intending
to Return
Remain
Overseas
Undecided
65.0
41.7
48.8
58.3
92.7
88.9
90.8
91.8
79.9
20.9
55.7
67.3
13.9
8.3
11.6
12.7
Australians Living Overseas: Frequency of
Contact with Australia, 2006
Source: One Million More Survey (n=9,529)
Frequency of
Contact
At least once a day
Every 2-3 days
Weekly
Monthly
Every 6 months
Once per year
Never
Telephone
Business Personal
3.5
6.2
3.4
19.3
5.6
45.9
12.5
21.9
15.0
4.6
9.2
1.1
50.9
1.0
Email
Business Personal
8.9
29.8
4.8
28.8
7.5
27.9
15.5
10.8
14.5
1.9
7.6
0.4
41.3
0.5
Post
Business Personal
0.5
0.3
0.8
1.0
2.3
4.8
8.2
36.5
11.9
34.7
8.4
10.0
68.0
12.7
Fax
Business Personal
0.5
0.1
0.8
0.3
1.5
0.6
4.3
3.2
7.4
9.2
7.4
10.5
77.9
76.0
Awareness of Group Identity
‘It has really been since I have
lived overseas that I have been
more acutely aware of my
sense of being Australian’.
Identity as an Expatriate
• Development of formal and informal
expatriate groups
- originally single country eg Indonesia
- also often partly business
- increasingly web based and
international
• Emergence of an Australian expatriate
culture
Identification with Homeland
‘I have my husband and family now here in the
USA but all the rest of my immediate family are
in Australia – it will always be 'home' but I also
have a home here. I will never give up my
Australian citizenship.’
‘Being born raised and educated in Australia set
the values by which I live today. Had my wife
and I had children we would have returned to
Australia for their education.’
Development of Multiple Identity
‘Dual nationality is important for expatriates as they
don’t want to give up their Australian citizenship. Yet for
business and other reasons being a citizen in the
country they reside in is useful.’
‘I have lived in England nearly 40 years but have kept
my Australian citizenship.’
‘We left Australia because in 1980-81, 2 PhDs in
Physics in Adelaide had very little chance of getting
reasonably equivalent jobs. We are still here because it
is difficult to judge at a distance the costs and benefits
of the return… I guess pragmatically we have emigrated
but emotionally it feels more like an extended visit.’
Formal Expatriate Networks
eg Southern Cross
•
•
•
•
Established 2000
4,000 on mailing list
Meetings in different countries
Strong lobbying role
- Dual citizenship
- The right to vote in Australia
• Social role
• Funded by Australian businessmen,
consulate help
‘Perhaps my husband and I are slipping
towards some expatriate no mans land
outsiders not only in the country we
have chosen to live in but our own
country as well. We wonder if we will
ever settle contentedly into Australia
again, and fear we won’t. Perhaps we
have entered, without even realising it,
that strange state of exile where a
memory of home is all we have left.’
Nikki Gemnell 2003
Diasporas in Australia
• Large immigrant communities
60 birthplace groups with 10,000+
115 birthplace groups with 1,000+
• Selective of highly skilled
• Variation in degree of identification
with origin
Australia: Persons Born in the Asia-Pacific by Country of Birth, 2006
Source: ABS 2006 Census
Diaspora and Co-development
The potential for migrants to help transform
their native countries has captured the
imaginations of national and local
authorities, international institutions and the
private sector. There is an emerging
consensus that countries can co-operate to
create triple wins, for migrants, for their
countries of origin and for the societies that
receive them’ (United Nations, 2006a, 5).
Major development agencies (World Bank,
DFID, ADB, IOM, ILO) argue that diasporas
based in high income countries can play a
role in economic development and poverty
reduction in low income origin areas.
Several countries (e.g. Philippines, India,
China) have set up agencies to engage with
the diaspora and facilitate these impacts.
Remittances Flows to Developing Countries, 2002 to 2007
Source:
World Bank 2008, p. 1
Remittances and Capital Flows to Developing Economies
Source:
World Bank 2007, p.2
Diaspora as Source of FDI
• Individual Investment (China)
• Influence on Companies (India)
Diaspora as Bridgehead
• Korea in the US
• In Canada a doubling of skilled
migration from Asia resulted in
a 74 percent increase in imports
Diaspora as Vehicle of
Knowledge Transfer
• Silicon Valley linkages
• China initiatives
• Social remittances
Diaspora and Development
Assistance
• Investment in education
systems of origin countries of
skilled migrants (Stark)
• Use of diaspora to facilitate
development assistance
Diaspora and Return
• Permanent, Temporary and Virtual
Return
• Facilitate Training, Knowledge
Transfer
• Contribute to Development at Home
Policy Implications from
Australia
• Policy toward Australia’s diaspora
• Can Australia assist diasporas
within the country facilitating
development in their home
countries?
An Australian Expatriate Policy?
In October 2003 the Australian Senate established an
inquiry with the following terms of reference:
• The extent of the Australian diaspora.
• The variety of factors driving more Australians to live
overseas.
• The costs, benefits and opportunities presented by
the phenomenon.
• The needs and concerns of overseas Australians.
• The measures taken by comparable countries to
respond to the needs of expatriates.
• Ways in which Australia can better use its expatriates
to promote economic, social and cultural interests.
Contrasting Views on Diaspora
• Australia may be losing its 'brightest and best'
whose loss is disproportionately large due to their
innovation, entrepreneurship and economic, social,
cultural and political leadership.
• There may be a net loss of highly skilled people in
particular important niches, (e.g. mathematics,
Wood (ed.) 2004)
• There was a strong feeling among expatriate
organisations that they were 'the forgotten
Australians' and were disenfranchised from
aspects of Australian life they wished to be
involved in.
Other Views
• It is of little concern – there are net
migration gains in all skill categories;
there are high rates of return migration.
• Australia should engage the diaspora in
a number of ways.
• Australia should encourage return
migration as part of its immigration
program.
The Senate Committee brought down its report in March 2005
(Australian Senate Legal and Constitutional References
Committee 2005). It made 16 recommendations including:
• Measures to improve better provision of information to
expatriates.
• Establishing a policy unit on expatriates within DFAT.
• Improve statistical information on expatriates.
• Revise consular role of missions to better engage
expatriates.
• Improved registration of expatriates in missions.
• Amend Citizenship Act in a number of ways including to
enable children of former Australian citizens to apply for
Australian citizenship.
• Enable some expatriates to remain on Electoral enrolment.
• Encourage non-profit organisations to pursue philanthropic
contributions from expatriate Australians.
Some opportunities which recognise that in a globalising
world the Australian community comprises more than
those residing within national boundaries:
• Direct involvement in Australia’s economy
– Bridgeheads for the export of Australian goods and
services (mining and wine industries)
– Linking Australian-based and overseas-based
scientists and researchers
– Encouraging return of skilled Australians wishing to
return
– Source of investment (Fullilove and Flutter 2005, 61)
estimate expatriates donate $80m a year to charity
– Targeted programs, e.g. in the film industry (Walton
2005)
A Development-Friendly Policy Toward
Diasporas in Australia?
There are two interesting areas which are emerging in relation to
diaspora and development. The first relates to the issue of return
migration. The conventional wisdom has been that encouraging
expatriates to return to permanently live in their homeland can
deliver development dividends to emigration countries. However
there is increasing evidence that in some cases a greater dividend
can be delivered by the expatriate remaining in foreign countries
but ‘returning’ frequently through regular visits and virtually
through regular interaction with relevant people in the homeland
(Wescott, 2005). Secondly it is evident that while the whole debate
has been on what origin countries can do to involve the diaspora in
development it is clear that destination countries too can be
important in facilitating their immigrants retaining developmentally
relevant linkages with their origins.
DFID, 2007, 1
• How can development agencies
increase the benefits and reduce
the risks of migration for poor
people in low income countries?
• Several interventions possible.
Interventions at Destination to Facilitate
Development in Origins
• Remittances – increasing flow and providing
opportunities for their productive use
• Build on skills and talents of minorities to promote
development in origin (DFID)
• Having a development sensitive migration policy
• Encouraging dual citizenship, portability of
pensions
• Encouraging maintenance of culture, links with
origin countries
• Diaspora as agents of development?
Barriers
• Siloization of government agencies
• Culture of only considering the
impact of migration on Australia
• Assimilationist views
Conclusion
• The rise of transnational communities has blurred the
distinction between foreign and local
• No longer can nation states afford to follow development
policies which are exclusively domestic in focus (Dade
2004)
• Australia is ‘hard-wired’ internationally both by its
substantial communities of immigrants and their
descendants linking with their homelands on the one hand
and its expatriate community’s networks with Australia on
the other
• Despite a national policy of multiculturalism there is a
dearth of interest in either set of networks by government
• Little research for evidence-based policy.