Ethical “reference” tests
David A. Whetten & Kim S. Cameron, “Developing Management Skills,” 5th Ed., 2002, Prentice Hall
Front Page test:
o
o
Would I be embarrassed if my decision became a headline in the local newspaper?
Would I feel comfortable describing my actions or decision to a customer or stockholder?
Golden rule test:
o
Would I be willing to be treated in the same manner?
Dignity and liberty test
o
o
o
Are the dignity and liberty of others preserved by this decision?
Is the basic humanity of the affected parties enhanced?
Are their opportunities expanded or curtailed?
Equal treatment test:
o
o
Are the rights, welfare, and betterment of minorities and lower-status people given full
consideration?
Does this decision benefit those with privilege but without merit?
Personal gain test:
o
o
Is an opportunity for personal gain clouding my judgment?
Would I make the same decision if the outcome did not benefit me in any way?
Congruence test:
o
o
Is this decision or action consistent with my espoused personal principles?
Does it violate the spirit of any organizational policies or laws?
Procedural justice test:
o
Can the procedures used to make this decision stand up to scrutiny by those affected?
Cost-benefit test:
o
o
o
Does a benefit for some cause unacceptable harm to others?
How critical is the benefit?
Can the harmful effects be mitigated?
o
Whether or not anyone else knows about my action, will it produce a good night's sleep?
Good night’s sleep test
Ethical Maturity

Cognitive Moral Development Levels

First Stage


Second Stage


Focus on Self
Uncritically accept conventional standards
Third Stage (maturity)

Evaluate previous standards in an effort to
develop more appropriate ones
Ethical Choice Tool
(Most Frequently Used?)
Driven by self-interest
Magnitude of Consequence?
Likelihood of discovery?
Nine Basic Steps to Personal Ethical
Decision Making
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Practice ethical behavior actively
Beware of "new ethics" programs
Define the ethical problem when it arises
Formulate alternatives
Evaluate the alternatives
Seek additional assistance, as appropriate
Choose best ethical alternative
Implement the best alternative
Monitor and assess the outcome
Determinants of Moral Behavior
(Understanding contextual factors)
Characteristics
(Moral Intensity) of the Issue
Social
Characteristics
Steps towards moral behavior
Relationships
with “others”
Type of
Relationships
Recognize
the moral
Issue
Make a
Moral
Judgment
(establish
Intent)
Engage in
Moral
Behavior
Cognitive
Dissonance
Structure of
Relationships
Individual
Characteristics
Situational
Characteristics
Level of Cognitive Moral
Development
X
absolute
Information
Critical
Thinking
Analysis
Relative
Evaluation
Philosophical framework
Teleology
Core
Values

Conventional
Justice
Deontology
Time Frame

Virtue
Principal Stakeholders
Cognitive Dissonance
BEHAVIOR
Rationalization (Justification)
Principles
Rights
Utilitarian
Care
Virtue
Ethics Tests
Ethical Decision-Making Process
Identify Action,
Decision, or Behavior
to be Taken
Ethics Screening
Articulate all dimensions of proposed
Action, decision, or behavior
Conventional
Approach
Standards Norms
• Personal
• Organizational
• Societal
• International
Passes
Ethics Screens
Proceed / Engage
Principles
Approach
Ethical Principles
• Justice
• Rights
• Utilitarianism
• Golden Rule
Care
Approach
• Relational
ontology & ideal
• Attentiveness
• Contextual
Ethical Tests
Approach
• Common Sense
•
•
•
•
•
One’s Best Self
Public Disclosure
Ventilation
Purified Idea
Gag Test
Do Not Proceed
Fails Ethics
Screens
Identify new
course of Action
Ethical Decision Process
1.
Identify the nature of the situation

Identify most feasible alternatives (and
consequences)
 Deontological Dimension (Absolutist approach)
 Are there any “rules,” or conventions that must be
followed (or should be created)
 Considers the Action (regardless of consequences)
 Are there personal (virtue) conventions?
 Care Dimension (Relativist)
 Is there a relationship that requires special
consideration
 Principles (Can be either relativist or absolutist)
 Analyze the Utilitarian, Justice, Rights frameworks
2.
Consider the various ethical tests as a check
Ethics
A dynamic balance ….




Action
Impartiality
Objective
Logical




Consequences
Partiality
Subjective
Emotional
Ethics / Decision-Making


Requires recognizing entire circumstance
Requires recognizing principle
stakeholders


Rewards integrity / consistency


Understands that framing of problem is based
on stakeholder’s perspective (perception)
Implies process / procedural integrity
Requires the combining of



Economic
Legal
Ethical
Ethical Analysis Toolkit
Tool “pouch”

Situational Analysis (Information)





Determinants of Moral Behavior
Bremer’s Big Picture
Identification of stakeholder(s)
Understanding of ethical climate
Critical thinking process (dynamic)



Information gathering
Analysis
Evaluation
Selection of Tools

Organizing the information


Rules, policies, procedures (organizational)




Codes of Ethics
Laws
Roll the Dice (action / consequence gamble)
Values (personal)



e.g., worksheet(s)
Decision making mode / models?
•
Cognitive Dissonance? (conflicting values)
Cognitive Moral Development level? Aspirations?
Philosophical (Category of tool)



Teleological (Action / Consequences)
Deontology (Action / Consistency)
Aristotelian (Values / Principles of Being)
Ethical Decision-Making Process
Identify Action,
Decision, or Behavior
to be Taken
Ethics Screening
Articulate all dimensions of proposed
Action, decision, or behavior
Conventional
Approach
Standards Norms
• Personal
• Organizational
• Societal
• International
Passes
Ethics Screens
Proceed / Engage
Principles
Approach
Ethical Principles
• Justice
• Rights
• Utilitarianism
• Golden Rule
Care
Approach
• Relational
ontology & ideal
• Attentiveness
• Contextual
Ethical Tests
Approach
• Common Sense
•
•
•
•
•
One’s Best Self
Public Disclosure
Ventilation
Purified Idea
Gag Test
Do Not Proceed
Fails Ethics
Screens
Identify new
course of Action
Selection of Tools (cont)

Screening method

Based on viable alternatives
•
Fully thought out and developed
 Conventional approach
•
Tied to Deontology
 Principles approach
•
Utilitarian, Justice, and Rights (incl. Golden Rule)
 Relational / Situational approach
•
Care and custody
 Ethics test(s)
•
Tied to consequences
Ethical Cross-Check
Method
Utilitarian
Rights
Justice
Care
Rule-Based
Values
Self-Discipline
Achievement
Tolerance
Honesty
Integrity
Responsibility
Fidelity
Charity
Honesty
Integrity
Bremer’s “big picture” perspective
Question
Level
1
What is?
2
3
What ought to be? Getting from 1 - 2?
4
Motivation?
Personal
Organizational
Industry or
Professional
Societal
More of a “goal” oriented process
Methods of Reasoning
Method
Utilitarian
Rights
Justice
Care
Critical Determing
Factor
Comparing benefits
and costs
An Action is Ethical
when….
Net benefits exceed
costs
Limitations
Difficult to measure
some human and
social costs; majority
may disregard the
rights of the minority
Respecting
Basic human rights
Difficult to balance
entitlements
are respected
conflicting rights
Distributing fair shares Benefits and costs
Difficult to measure
are fairly distributed
benefits and costs;
lack of agreement on
fair shares (fair may
not be equal)
Honoring relationships The involved party is
Requires situational
given due
ethics; Difficult to
consideration
justify under any of the
other frameworks
Simplified Ethics Justification Test
Alternative
1
2
3
4
5
Feasibility Test
Reversibility Test
Harm Test
Publicity Test
Check time, money,
technical, and social
factors
Apply reversibility test
to alternatives
Apply harm test to
alternatives
Apply publicity test to
alternatives
Components of Ethical Climates
Focus of Individual
Person
Ethical Company
Societal Concern
Egoism (SelfCentered approach)
Self Interest
Company Interest
Economic efficiency
Benevolence
(Concern for others
approach)
Friendship
Team interest
Social responsibility
Personal morality
Company rules and
procedures
Laws and
professional codes
Ethical Criteria
Principle (Integrity
Approach)
Using Philosophical Framing
Philosophy
Alternative(s)
Utilitatian
Deontological
Character
Action - Consequences
Action - consistency
Values / Principles
The information ethics matrix
values and rights in electronic environments
rights
right to
read
right to
write
right to
learn
right
to
right to
comcommumunicate
nicate
right to
filter
development,
information
competence
participation,
open access
deliberative
democracy
privacy,
data protection
education for
all
collaboration
knowledge
sharing
self-determination
no censorship
information
control
values
autonomy
inclusiveness
justice
sustainability
development,
self-determination
information
for all
participation
free access
knowledge
sharing
education for
all
intergenerational
access
open access
responsibility
life-long
learning
information
ecology
This PP file is made publicly available under the following Creative-Commons-License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/de/
Rainer Kuhlen – Computer and Information Science – University of Konstanz, Germany
Transborder Library Forum – Chihuahua, Mexico – March 2005