Psychological
Explanations of
Criminal Behaviour
Violence and Homicide
Definition of Dangerousness

Behavior likely to result in physical and/or psychological
trauma

Mental health professionals involved in predicting future
risk of dangerousness

Accuracy of prediction: a complex & controversial task

huge indicator is a hx of violent offending
Aggression & Violence
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Aggression: behavior perpetrated or attempted
with the intention of harming another individual
physically or psychologically or to destroy an
object.
Violence: Actual, attempted, or threatened
physical harm that is deliberate and
nonconsenting
 Includes violence against victims who cannot
give full, informed consent
 Includes fear-inducing behavior, where threats
may be implicit or directed at third parties
All violent behavior is aggressive, but not all
aggressive behavior is violent.
Types of Aggression

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Hostile (or expressive) aggression: occurs in
response to anger-inducing conditions, such
as real or perceived insults, physical attacks,
or one’s own failures. Goal = to make victim
suffer. Intense and disorganized emotion
Instrumental aggression: begins with
competition or the desire for some object or
status possessed by another person. Goal =
obtain desired object. No intent to harm,
although indifferent.
Violence as a Choice

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The proximal cause of violence is a decision
to act violently
The decision is influenced by a host of
biological, psychological, and social factors
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Neurological insult, hormonal abnormality
Psychosis, personality disorder
Exposure to violent models, attitudes that
condone violence
Theoretical Perspectives on
Aggression

Frustration-aggression hypothesis: 1) the person is blocked from
obtaining an expected goal; 2) frustration results, generating anger;
and 3) anger predisposes or readies the person to behave
aggressively.

Social Learning: children learn, model/observe, their environment.
The conditions most conducive to learning aggression are those in
which the child (1) has many opportunities to observe aggression;
(2) is reinforced for his or her own aggression; (3) is often the object
of aggression.
Rudiments of aggressive behavior acquired through observing
aggressive models or direct experience, then refined and
maintained by reinforcement (e.g., by feeling in control).

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Most research supports the notion that human aggression is
primarily learned (early learning and socialization).
Cognitive Models of
Aggression

Hostile attribution bias: individual’s prone to
violence are more likely to interpret
ambiguous actions as hostile and threatening
Cognitive Self-Regulation and
Violence
self-regulatory mechanisms - (social
learning and social cognition theory)
 weak cognitive control can facilitate
impulsive actions thus in certain
circumstances our actions are directed
by external situation instead of cognitive

How do people with apparently “good”
structures commit horrible crimes?

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social learning theory = under certain
circumstances self-regulatory mechanisms
become disengaged from conduct = may be what
takes place in impulsive violence
high levels of emotional arousal may infringe on
self regulatory mechanisms
dehumanizing - serial killers view victims as
objects rather than humans - when person is
humanized (i.e. killer gets acquainted, then harder
to kill victim)
people will engage in conduct that goes against
their morals if dictated by figure with authority
Overt and Covert Aggressive
Actions
Aggression
Behavior
patterns
Emotions
Cognitions
development
Overt
Direct
confrontation
with victims;
generally
decreases with
age
Anger; high
level of arousal
and violence
Lacks social
cognitions for
coming up with
nonaggressive
solutions
Aggression begins
early, especially for
boys
Covert
Concealment,
dishonesty,
sneaky
behavior,
increases with
age
Less emotion;
crimes such as
fraud, larceny
and theft
Relies on
Can evolve as well
cognitive
learned strategy to
capabilities, such escape punishment
as planfulness,
deceitfulness
Homicide

What is homicide?

An act in which the life of one person is lost at the
hands of another.

Criminal homicide is murder when:

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Person who causes death means to cause death or
means to cause bodily harm likely to result in death.
First-, Second-degree murder, Manslaughter
Homicide

Incidence and Patterns (2002)

Frequency in Canada
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582 criminal homicides (1% of violent crimes)
1.9 per 100, 000
Nature of Homicide in Canada

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Location (Private residence, 60%)
Number of Victims (Lone victim, 94%)
Victims (Male, Young, Family Members)
Suspects (Male, Young, Known to victim)
Homicide

General View of Homicide

Reactive violence vs. Instrumental Violence

Homicide is often the final word in an argument arising
between people who know each other and who are
engaged in their normal activities
(Linden, 2004)
Homicide as “Crime of
Passion”

Cognitive Self-Regulation

Excitation Transfer Theory (Zillman, 1979, 1983)

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Arousal produced in one situation can persist and
intensify emotional reactions occurring in
subsequent situations
Impairment of cognitive processes
Transfer of arousal from one situation to another
most likely to occur if the person is unaware that
he or she is still carrying some arousal.
Homicide as “Crime of
Passion”
Prior Event
An aversive earlier event
creates frustration,
emotional arousal.
Frustrating Event
Anger and frustration from
prior event influences
subsequent emotions and
appraisal of current events.
Homicide as “Crime of
Passion”
Prior Event
An aversive earlier event
creates frustration,
emotional arousal.
Frustrating Event
Anger and frustration from
prior event influences
subsequent emotions and
appraisal of current events.
Cognitive Processes
Impaired and subsequent
actions are more impulsive.
Homicide as “Crime of
Passion”

Dispositional or Personality Perspective

Violent Men (Hans Toch, 1969)

Certain personalities more likely to react violently
in certain circumstances.

Violence can be traced to
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Habitual response patterns
Past effectiveness in dealing with conflictual,
interpersonal relationships
Humiliation/Threats to reputation and status.
Homicide as “Crime of
Passion”

Dispositional or Personality Perspective

Edwin Megargee (1966)

The Undercontrolled offender:
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Few inhibitions against aggressive behaviour.
Aggression becomes a habitual response when
angry/upset.
The Overcontrolled Offender
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Well-established inhibitions against aggressive behaviour,
and rigidly adheres to them, even in the face of provocation.
When frustration and provocation overwhelm – excessive
violence
Homicide as “Cold
Calculation”

Multiple Murder

Serial murder:
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Spree murder:
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A minimum of three victims over time
Cooling-off period
Three or more victims without a cooling-off period,
usually at two or three different locations.
Mass murder:

Three or more victims at a single location with no
cooling-off period between the killings
Homicide as “Cold
Calculation”

Criminal Profiling

The process of identifying personality traits,
behavioural patterns, geographical habits, and
demographic features of an offender based on
characteristics of the crime.
Homicide as “Cold
Calculation”
Assumptions of the profiling process:

3.
The crime scene reflects the personality
The offender’s personality will not change
The method of operation remains similar

Modus Operandi
1.
2.

Actions and procedures an offender engages in to
commit a crime successfully
Homicide as “Cold
Calculation”
Assumptions of the profiling process:

4.
The signature will remain the same

Personation or signature

Anything that goes beyond what is necessary to commit
the crime.
Staging


The intentional alteration of a crime scene prior to the
arrival of the police.
Sexual Homicide

What is Sexual Homicide?

The intentional killing of a person during which
there is sexual behaviour by the perpetrator.

A sexual element (activity) as the basis for the
sequence of acts leading to death.
Sexual Killers
Slightly older, average age 28 years
Single
White, Aboriginal
Paraphilia (up to 50% of cases)
Sadism
Criminal History
(see Beauregard, 2012)
Sexual Killers - Victims
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Female strangers
Female acquaintances
Males
White, Aboriginal – intraracial crimes
Drug or alcohol users
Prostitutes are frequent targets
Children can be also
Sexual Killers – What they do
Close contact killing techniques (hands,
beating, stabbing)
Disposed of body outdoors
 Kept souvenirs
 Only 10% had sex with body after death
 Less than 5% on average mutilated body
parts
 Many engaged in overkill
 Many had sex with victim before death

Sexual Homicide

Organized Type
General traits:
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Planning and
premeditation
Maintenance of control of
self and the victim
Often the victim is moved
from the abduction area
to another secluded area

Disorganized Type
General traits:
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No premeditation or
planning
Impulsive, anger,
extreme excitement
Victim’s body left in
view; no alteration of
crime scene
Serial Killers

A Profile of the “Typical” Serial Killer
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Diagnosis of Mental Illness
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Age
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Relatively older (Median age of 36 years)
Criminal History
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Absence of Axis I disorders
Psychopathy, Major personality disorders
History of non-violent offences, No juvenile history
Geographic location:

Specific location

A large number select victims near their current
residence or place of work.
Serial Killers
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Typology of Serial Killers
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The Visionary Serial Killer
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Motivation
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Pattern of Homicide
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Delusional visions and/or thoughts.
Highly disorganized; Spontaneous with little planning.
Ed Gein

He believed that by eating the corpses of women who
looked like his mother, he could preserve his mother's soul
inside his body (creating furniture with skin and body parts)
Serial Killers

Typology of Serial Killers
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The Mission-Oriented Serial Killer

Motivation
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A belief there is a particular group of people who are
undesirable and who must be destroyed or eliminated.
Not psychotic; Function on a day-to-day basis without
demonstrating aberrant behaviour.
Peter Sutcliffe

He claimed voices told him to clean up the streets of
prostitutes (also had a fight with a hooker for payment…
UK, prostitute user) – murdered 13 women
Serial Killers

Typology of Serial Killers
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The Hedonistic Serial Killer
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Motivation
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Kills for the sheer pleasure
Aspect they enjoy varies
Lust Killer, Thrill Killer, Creature-Comfort Killer
Dave Berkowitz (“Son of Sam”)

Got a thrill out of shooting young couples in cars at random
and then running away without ever physically touching the
victims (enjoyed publicity)
Serial Killers

Typology of Serial Killers

The Power/Control Serial Killer
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Motivation

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Pattern of Homicide

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To gain and exert power over their victim
Ritualistic Elements
Cameron Hooker

Kidnapped a woman and held her hostage as a sex slave
for several years (the woman in a box)
Serial Killers
Psychology and Development
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Little valid empirical knowledge

The MacDonald Triad
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1.
2.
3.
Some serial killers display one or more of the
following warning signs in childhood (unvalidated
theory)
Fire-Starting
Cruelty to Animals
Persistent Bedwetting
Risk Assessment
only an aid to expert testimony
Relevant indicators for future crime
 Previous violent conduct
 Substance abuse hx
 Young age
Risk Assessment Tools:
-HCR-20
-VRAG
PCL-R
Will – Did (True Positive) Did Not (False Positive)
Will Not – Did (False Negative) Did Not (True Negative)

Risk Prediction
Will – Did (True Positive) Did Not (False
Positive)
Will Not – Did (False Negative) Did Not (True
Negative)
Will Commit
an offense
Will Not
Commit an
offense
Did do it
Did (True
Positive)
Did (False
Negative)
Did not
do it
Did not (False
Positive)
Did not (True
negative)
Risk Assessment tools
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They change depending on recent research
Must stay up to date!
Must have the qualifications to use the tool
Must understand certain risk factors and
literature behind it
VRAG-R
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Living with both parents until age 16 – no
Elementary school maladjustment – severe
History of alcohol or drug problems
Marital status – never married
Lots of previous nonviolent convictions
Failure on conditional release
Age at index offense (younger = more risk)
Lots of previous violent convictions
VRAG-R
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Prior admissions to correctional institutions
(more = risky)
Conduct Disorder
Sex Offending (hands on, female adult)
PCL-R, facet 4, antisociality
HCR-20
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Historical Scale (History of problems with...)
H1. Violence
H2. Other Antisocial Behavior
H3. Relationships
H4. Employment
H5. Substance Use
H6. Major Mental Disorder
H7. Personality Disorder
H8. Traumatic Experiences
H9. Violent Attitudes
H10. Treatment or Supervision Response
HCR-20
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Clinical Scale (Recent problems with...)
C1. Insight
C2. Violent Ideation or Intent
C3. Symptoms of Major Mental Disorder
C4. Instability
C5. Treatment or Supervision Response
HCR-20
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Risk Management Scale (Future problems
with...)
R1. Professional Services and Plans
R2. Living Situation
R3. Personal Support
R4. Treatment or Supervision Response
R5. Stress or Coping
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Publicity and serial killers….
Forensic Awareness, how much they know
about the police process and how to thwart it