Stress, Coping, and
Health
Chapter 7
Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986) - For
student populations
• Instructions:
– People may use the following statements to describe
themselves. For each statement, decide whether the
statement is uncharacteristic or characteristic of you using
the following 5 point scale. Note that the 3 on the scale is
Neutral – the statement is neither characteristic nor
uncharacteristic of you. In the box to the right of each
statement, fill in the number on the 5 point scale that best
describes you.
1. I often find myself performing tasks that I
had intended to do days before.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
2.* I do not do assignments until just before
they are to be handed in.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
3.* When I am finished with a library book, I
return it right away regardless of the date it is
due.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
4.
When it is time to get up in the morning, I
most often get right out of bed.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
5.
A letter may sit for days after I write it
before mailing it.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
6.
I generally return phone calls promptly.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
7.
Even with jobs that require little else
except sitting down and doing them, I find
they seldom get done for days.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
8.
I usually make decisions as soon as
possible.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
9.
I generally delay before starting on work I
have to do.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
10.* I usually have to rush to complete a task
on time.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
11. When preparing to go out, I am seldom
caught having to do something at the last
minute.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
12. In preparing for some deadline, I often
waste time by doing other things.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
13.* I prefer to leave early for an appointment.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
14.* I usually start an assignment shortly after
it is assigned.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
15. I often have a task finished sooner than
necessary.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
16. I always seem to end up shopping for
birthday or Christmas gifts at the last minute.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
17. I usually buy even an essential item at the
last minute.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
18. I usually accomplish all the things I plan to
do in a day.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
19. I am continually saying “I’ll do it tomorrow”.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
20. I usually take care of all the tasks I have
to do before I settle down and relax for the
evening.
Enter your response.
1. Strongly Agree
20%
2. Agree
20%
3. Neutral
20%
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
Mean =
1
20%
20%
2
10
I. Relationship between Life Events and
Stress
• A. Demands, Strain, Coping, and Stress
– Demands are environmental requirements that
motivate behavior.
– Strain occurs when resources are inadequate to
meet demands.
– Coping is behavior to meet demands.
– Stress or distress is a case of excessive strain;
coping is inadequate.
• Excessive demands
• Limited resources
I. Relationship between Life Events and
Stress
• B. Characteristics of Stress
– 1. Physical Symptoms of Stress
• Allergies, colds, flu, headache.
– 2. Psychological Symptoms of Stress
• Anxiety, boredom, depression, feel helpless, negative
mood.
– 3. Behavioral Symptoms of Stress
• Consume alcohol, nicotine, drugs, eat comfort foods,
waste time.
I. Relationship between Life Events and
Stress
• C. Characteristics of Stressors
– 1. Negative Life Events as Stressors
• Same domain effect: negative life demands produce
distress or stress; positive life demands produce
eustress.
– 2. Magnitude of Life Events
• Cataclysmic events are high magnitude stressors. Daily
hassles are low magnitude stressors. Daily uplifts bring
relief, joy, amusement.
I. Relationship between Life Events and
Stress
• C. Characteristics of Stressors
– 3. Predictability and Controllability of Life Events
• Predictable stressors are preferred over unpredictable
stressors.
• Preparatory response hypothesis: predictive stimulus
allows for preparation of shock.
• Safety hypothesis: person can relax and feel safe during
signaled-shock free intervals.
I. Relationship between Life Events and
Stress
• D. Stressor-Stress Relationship
• Generally stress increases with increases in stressors
magnitude.
– 1. Retrospective versus Prospective Research
• Retrospective: stressed individual tries to recall past
stressors.
• Prospective: measure person's stress level before and
after onset of suspected stressor.
– 2. Determining the Impact of Stressors
• Life change unit: measure of amount of adjustment a
demand requires
• Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire provide life change
units for demands faced by university students.
I. Relationship between Life Events and
Stress
• D. Stressor-Stress Relationship
– 3. Stressor Magnitude and Stress
• Acute stress disorder: fear and helplessness reaction to a
traumatic event that threatens death or serious injury; subsides
in four weeks.
• Posttraumatic stress disorder: acute stress disorder lasts more
than four weeks. Person experiences distressing recollections,
physiological reactivity, social impairment, and avoids stimulus
reminders.
• Terrorist attack of 11 September 2001 produced PTSD.
– 4. Cumulative Effects of Stressors
• As life demands accumulate they become stressors and
produce stress.
– 5. Racism as a Stressor
• Racism experienced by African Americans and other minorities
is associated with stress and psychiatric symptoms.
II. Bodily Effects of Stress
• A. Physiological Effects of Stressors
– 1. General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye, 1976)
• The body's physiological reaction to all stressors occurs in
three stages:
• alarm, resistance, and exhaustion (adaptation energy
depleted).
• death
– 2. Psychological Stressors and Physiological Responses
• Such stressors as public speaking and job interviews can
cause stress.
• B. Stressors and Psychophysiologic Disorders
– Stressors, e.g., anger can interact with chronic risk factors
(cholesterol, high blood pressure) to increase the likelihood of
heart attacks.
II. Bodily Effects of Stress
• C. Stressors and the Immune System
• Psychoneuroimmunology: study relationship between
psychological stressors, strength of the immune system,
and disease.
• Immune system is body's line of defense against bacteria
and viruses.
– 1. Stressor Effects on the Immune System
• Stressors reduce effectiveness of immune system and
disease occurs.
– 2. Open Window Hypothesis
• Few hours after strenuous exercise the immune system
is weak, which provides an open window for germs to
invade and infect the body.
II. Bodily Effects of Stress
• C. Stressors and the Immune System
– 3. Stressors, Immune System, and the Common
Cold
• Psychological stressors can downgrade the immune
system and increase the likelihood that a cold virus will
result in a cold.
– 4. Multiple Stressor Effects
• Stressors simultaneously affect a person's psychological,
physiological, and immune systems.
III. Variables Moderating the Impact of
Life Events
• A. Appraisal of Life Events
• Moderating variables: environment or person
characteristics that alter the relationship between the
stressor and stress.
– 1. Appraisal and Stress
• Primary appraisal: is event relevant, benign, positive, or
stressful?
• Secondary appraisal: inventory resources for coping with
stressor.
– 2. Appraisal as a Moderator
• With trauma orientation appraisal a gruesome event was
stressful; with denial or intellectualization appraisal, it
was less stressful.
III. Variables Moderating the Impact of
Life Events
• B. Coping and Behavior
– 1. Coping
• Problem focused coping: identify problem clearly and consider
potential solutions.
• Emotion focused coping: managing the distress the person
feels.
• Appraisal and subsequent coping is a process, not static event.
– 2. Health Behaviors
• Health enhancing behaviors help prevent stress or reduce its
impact.
• Health impairing behavior increase the likelihood and severity
of stress; such behaviors as alcohol, drugs, and tobacco use.
• C. Social Support as a Moderator
• Buffering hypothesis: social support buffers or protects a
person from harm of a potential stressor. Social support also
buffers immune system and physical health against stressors.
III. Variables Moderating the Impact of
Life Events
• D. Personality Differences as Moderator
Variables
– 1. Procrastination
• Procrastinating students experience more stress at
semester's end than do non-procrastinating students.
– 2. Sense of Humor
• With this sense, a person is inclined to smile, laugh, and
be amused. It can help with stressor-appraisal and
reduce the impact of stress.
– 3. Hardiness
• With this personality trait, a person sees life events as
challenging, feels in control, and is committed to various
activities.