Unit 1: What is Biology?
Unit 2: Ecology
Unit 3: The Life of a Cell
Unit 4: Genetics
Unit 5: Change Through Time
Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi
Unit 7: Plants
Unit 8: Invertebrates
Unit 9: Vertebrates
Unit 10: The Human Body
Unit 1: What is Biology?
Chapter 1: Biology: The Study of Life
Unit 2: Ecology
Chapter 2: Principles of Ecology
Chapter 3: Communities and Biomes
Chapter 4: Population Biology
Chapter 5: Biological Diversity and Conservation
Unit 3: The Life of a Cell
Chapter 6: The Chemistry of Life
Chapter 7: A View of the Cell
Chapter 8: Cellular Transport and the Cell Cycle
Chapter 9: Energy in a Cell
Unit 4: Genetics
Chapter 10: Mendel and Meiosis
Chapter 11: DNA and Genes
Chapter 12: Patterns of Heredity and Human Genetics
Chapter 13: Genetic Technology
Unit 5: Change Through Time
Chapter 14: The History of Life
Chapter 15: The Theory of Evolution
Chapter 16: Primate Evolution
Chapter 17: Organizing Life’s Diversity
Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi
Chapter 18: Viruses and Bacteria
Chapter 19: Protists
Chapter 20: Fungi
Unit 7: Plants
Chapter 21:
Chapter 22:
Chapter 23:
Chapter 24:
What Is a Plant?
The Diversity of Plants
Plant Structure and Function
Reproduction in Plants
Unit 8: Invertebrates
Chapter 25: What Is an Animal?
Chapter 26: Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and
Roundworms
Chapter 27: Mollusks and Segmented Worms
Chapter 28: Arthropods
Chapter 29: Echinoderms and Invertebrate
Chordates
Unit 9: Vertebrates
Chapter 30: Fishes and Amphibians
Chapter 31: Reptiles and Birds
Chapter 32: Mammals
Chapter 33: Animal Behavior
Unit 10: The Human Body
Chapter 34: Protection, Support, and Locomotion
Chapter 35: The Digestive and Endocrine Systems
Chapter 36: The Nervous System
Chapter 37: Respiration, Circulation, and Excretion
Chapter 38: Reproduction and Development
Chapter 39: Immunity from Disease
Genetics
Mendel and Meiosis
DNA and Genes
Patterns of Heredity and Human
Genetics
Genetic Technology
Chapter 11 DNA and Genes
11.1: DNA: The Molecule of Heredity
11.1: Section Check
11.2: From DNA to Protein
11.2: Section Check
11.3: Genetic Changes
11.3: Section Check
Chapter 11 Summary
Chapter 11 Assessment
What You’ll Learn
You will relate the structure of DNA to
its function.
You will explain the role of DNA in
protein production.
You will distinguish among different
types of mutations.
Section Objectives:
• Analyze the
structure of DNA
• Determine how
the structure of
DNA enables it
to reproduce
itself accurately.
What is DNA?
• Although the environment influences how an
organism develops, the genetic information
that is held in the molecules of DNA
ultimately determines an organism’s traits.
• DNA achieves its control by determining the
structure of proteins.
What is DNA?
• All actions, such as eating, running, and even
thinking, depend on proteins called enzymes.
• Enzymes are critical for an organism’s
function because they control the chemical
reactions needed for life.
• Within the structure of DNA is the
information for life—the complete
instructions for manufacturing all the
proteins for an organism.
DNA as the genetic material
• In 1952 Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
performed an experiment using radioactively
labeled viruses that infect bacteria.
• These viruses were made of only protein and
DNA.
DNA as the genetic material
• Hershey and Chase labeled the virus DNA
with a radioactive isotope and the virus
protein with a different isotope.
• By following the infection of bacterial
cells by the labeled viruses, they
demonstrated that DNA, rather than
protein, entered the cells and caused the
bacteria to produce new viruses.
The structure of nucleotides
• DNA is a polymer made of repeating subunits
called nucleotides.
Nitrogenous
base
Phosphate
group
Sugar (deoxyribose)
• Nucleotides have three parts: a simple sugar,
a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
The structure of nucleotides
• The simple sugar in DNA, called
deoxyribose (dee ahk sih RI bos), gives DNA
its name—deoxyribonucleic acid.
• The phosphate group is composed of one
atom of phosphorus surrounded by four
oxygen atoms.
The structure of nucleotides
• A nitrogenous base is a carbon ring structure
that contains one or more atoms of nitrogen.
• In DNA, there are four possible nitrogenous
bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
and thymine (T).
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
The structure of nucleotides
• Thus, in DNA there are four possible
nucleotides, each containing one of these
four bases.
The structure of nucleotides
• Nucleotides join together to form long
chains, with the phosphate group of one
nucleotide bonding to the deoxyribose
sugar of an adjacent nucleotide.
• The phosphate groups and deoxyribose
molecules form the backbone of the chain,
and the nitrogenous bases stick out like
the teeth of a zipper.
The structure of nucleotides
• In DNA, the
amount of adenine
is always equal to
the amount of
thymine, and the
amount of guanine
is always equal to
the amount of
cytosine.
The structure of DNA
• In 1953, Watson and Crick proposed that
DNA is made of two chains of nucleotides
held together by nitrogenous bases.
• Watson and Crick also proposed that DNA
is shaped like a long zipper that is twisted
into a coil like a spring.
• Because DNA is composed of two strands
twisted together, its shape is called double
helix.
The importance of nucleotide sequences
Chromosome
The sequence of
nucleotides forms the
unique genetic
information of an
organism. The closer
the relationship is
between two organisms,
the more similar their
DNA nucleotide
sequences will be.
The importance of nucleotide sequences
• Scientists use nucleotide sequences to
determine evolutionary relationships among
organisms, to determine whether two
people are related, and to identify bodies of
crime victims.
Replication of DNA
• Before a cell can divide by mitosis or
meiosis, it must first make a copy of its
chromosomes.
• The DNA in the chromosomes is copied in
a process called DNA replication.
• Without DNA replication, new cells would
have only half the DNA of their parents.
DNA
Replication
of DNA
Replication
Replication
Replication
of DNA
Click this image to view movie
Copying DNA
• DNA is copied during interphase prior to
mitosis and meiosis.
• It is important that the new copies are
exactly like the original molecules.
Copying DNA
New DNA
molecule
Original
DNA
Strand
New DNA
Strand
Free
Nucleotides
Original
DNA
Strand
Original DNA
New DNA
molecule
Question 1
What importance did the experiment performed
by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase have in
determining what genetic material was?
Answer
Many scientists believed protein was the
genetic material. However, an experiment
using radioactively labeled viruses allowed
Hershey and Chase to provide convincing
evidence that DNA is the genetic material.
Question 2
Which of the following is NOT a component
of DNA?
A. simple sugars
B. phosphate groups
C. nitrogenous bases
D. proteins
The answer is D.
Question 3
Which of the following correctly comprises a
complimentary base pair?
A. adenine – thymine
B. thymine – guanine
C. guanine – adenine
D. cytosine – thymine
The answer is A.
Section Objectives
• Relate the concept of the gene to the
sequence of nucleotides in DNA.
• Sequence the steps involved in protein
synthesis.
Genes and Proteins
• The sequence of nucleotides in DNA contain
information.
• This information is put to work through the
production of proteins.
• Proteins fold into complex, threedimensional shapes to become key cell
structures and regulators of cell functions.
Genes and Proteins
• Some proteins become important structures,
such as the filaments in muscle tissue.
• Other proteins, such as enzymes, control
chemical reactions that perform key life
functions—breaking down glucose molecules
in cellular respiration, digesting food, or
making spindle fibers during mitosis.
Genes and Proteins
• In fact, enzymes control all the chemical
reactions of an organism.
• Thus, by encoding the instructions for
making proteins, DNA controls cells.
Genes and Proteins
• You learned earlier that proteins are
polymers of amino acids.
• The sequence of nucleotides in each gene
contains information for assembling the
string of amino acids that make up a single
protein.
RNA
• RNA like DNA, is
a nucleic acid.
RNA structure
differs from DNA
structure in three
ways.
• First, RNA is single stranded—it looks
like one-half of a zipper —whereas DNA
is double stranded.
RNA
• The sugar in
DNA is ribose;
DNA’s sugar is
deoxyribose.
Ribose
RNA
• Both DNA and RNA contain four nitrogenous
bases, but rather than thymine, RNA contains
a similar base called uracil (U).
Uracil
Hydrogen bonds
Adenine
• Uracil forms a
base pair with
adenine in
RNA, just as
thymine does
in DNA.
RNA
• DNA provides workers with the instructions
for making the proteins, and workers build
the proteins.
• The workers for protein synthesis are RNA
molecules.
RNA
• DNA provides workers with the instructions
for making the proteins, and workers build
the proteins.
• The workers for protein synthesis are RNA
molecules.
• They take from DNA the instructions on how
the protein should be assembled, then—
amino acid by amino acid—they assemble
the protein.
RNA
• There are three types of RNA that help build
proteins.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA), brings instructions
from DNA in the nucleus to the cell’s factory
floor, the cytoplasm.
• On the factory floor, mRNA moves to the
assembly line, a ribosome.
RNA
• The ribosome, made of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA), binds to the mRNA and uses the
instructions to assemble the amino acids in
the correct order.
RNA
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the supplier.
Transfer RNA delivers amino acids to the
ribosome to be assembled into a protein.
Click image to view movie
Transcription
• In the nucleus, enzymes make an RNA copy
of a portion of a DNA strand in a process
called transcription.
Click image to view movie
Transcription
A
DNA
strand
RNA
strand
RNA
strand
C
B
DNA
strand
Transcription
• The main difference between transcription
and DNA replication is that transcription
results in the formation of one singlestranded RNA molecule rather than a doublestranded DNA molecule.
RNA Processing
• Not all the nucleotides in the DNA of
eukaryotic cells carry instructions—or
code—for making proteins.
• Genes usually contain many long noncoding
nucleotide sequences, called introns, that are
scattered among the coding sequences.
RNA Processing
• Regions that contain information are called
exons because they are expressed.
• When mRNA is transcribed from DNA, both
introns and exons are copied.
• The introns must be removed from the
mRNA before it can function to make a
protein.
RNA Processing
• Enzymes in the nucleus cut out the intron
segments and paste the mRNA back together.
• The mRNA then leaves the nucleus and
travels to the ribosome.
The Genetic Code
• The nucleotide sequence transcribed from
DNA to a strand of messenger RNA acts as a
genetic message, the complete information
for the building of a protein.
• As you know, proteins contain chains of
amino acids. You could say that the
language of proteins uses an alphabet of
amino acids.
The Genetic Code
• A code is needed to convert the language of
mRNA into the language of proteins.
• Biochemists began to crack the genetic
code when they discovered that a group of
three nitrogenous bases in mRNA code for
one amino acid. Each group is known as a
codon.
The Genetic Code
• Sixty-four combinations are possible when a
sequence of three bases is used; thus, 64
different mRNA codons are in the genetic
code.
The Genetic Code
The Messenger RNA Genetic Code
First
Letter
U
U
Phenylalanine (UUU)
A
G
Third
Letter
G
Serine (UCU)
Tyrosine (UAU)
Cysteine (UGU)
Serine (UCC)
Tyrosine (UAC)
Cysteine (UGC)
Leucine (UUA)
Leucine (UUG)
Serine (UCA)
Stop (UAA)
Stop (UGA)
Serine (UCG)
Stop (UAG)
Tryptophan (UGG)
Leucine (CUU)
Proline (CCU)
Histadine (CAU)
Arginine (CGU)
Leucine (CUC)
Proline (CCC)
Histadine (CAC)
Arginine (CGC)
Leucine (CUA)
Proline (CCA)
Glutamine (CAA)
Arginine (CGA)
Leucine (CUG)
Isoleucine (AUU)
Proline (CCG)
Glutamine (CAG)
Arginine (CGG)
Threonine (ACU)
Asparagine (AAU)
Serine (AGU)
Isoleucine (AUC)
Threonine (ACC)
Asparagine (AAC)
Serine (AGC)
Isoleucine (AUA)
Methionine;
Start (AUG)
Threonine (ACA)
Lysine (AAA)
Threonine (ACG)
Lysine (AAG)
Arginine (AGA)
Arginine (AGG)
Valine (GUU)
Alanine (GCU)
Aspartate (GAU)
Glycine (GGU)
Valine (GUC)
Alanine (GCC)
Aspartate (GAC)
Glycine (GGC)
Valine (GUA)
Valine (GUG)
Alanine (GCA)
Alanine (GCG)
Glutamate (GAA)
Glutamate (GAG)
Glycine (GGA)
Glycine (GGG)
Phenylalanine (UUC)
C
C
Second Letter
A
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
The Genetic Code
• Some codons do not code for amino acids;
they provide instructions for making the
protein.
• More than one codon can code for the same
amino acid.
• However, for any one codon, there can be
only one amino acid.
The Genetic Code
• All organisms use the same genetic code.
• This provides evidence that all life on Earth
evolved from a common origin.
Translation: From mRNA to Protein
• The process of converting the information in
a sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA
into a sequence of amino acids in protein is
known as translation.
• Translation takes place at the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm.
• In prokaryotic cells, which have no nucleus,
the mRNA is made in the cytoplasm.
Translation: From mRNA to Protein
• In eukaryotic cells, mRNA is made in the
nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm.
• In cytoplasm, a ribosome attaches to the
strand of mRNA like a clothespin clamped
onto a clothesline.
The role of transfer RNA
• For proteins to be built, the 20 different
amino acids dissolved in the cytoplasm
must be brought to the ribosomes.
• This is the role of transfer RNA.
The role of transfer RNA
Amino
acid
• Each tRNA
molecule
attaches to
only one type
of amino acid.
Chain of RNA
nucleotides
Transfer RNA
molecule
Anticondon
The role of transfer RNA
• As translation begins, a ribosome attaches
to the starting end of the mRNA strand.
Then, tRNA molecules, each carrying a
specific amino acid, approach the
ribosome.
• When a tRNA anticodon pairs with the first
mRNA codon, the two molecules
temporarily join together.
The role of transfer RNA
Ribosome
mRNA codon
The role of transfer RNA
• Usually, the first codon on mRNA is
AUG, which codes for the amino acid
methionine.
• AUG signals the start of protein synthesis.
• When this signal is given, the ribosome
slides along the mRNA to the next codon.
The role of transfer RNA
Methionine
tRNA
anticodon
The role of transfer RNA
• A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino
acid pairs with the second mRNA codon.
Alanine
The role of transfer RNA
• The amino acids are joined when a peptide
bond is formed between them.
Methionine
Alanine
Peptide
bond
The role of transfer RNA
• A chain of amino acids is formed until the
stop codon is reached on the mRNA strand.
Stop
codon
Question 1
What are the three chemical differences
between RNA and DNA?
Answer
RNA consists of a single strand of nucleotides
whereas DNA is a double strand. RNA contains
ribose as its sugar and DNA contains
deoxyribose as its sugar. Uracil in RNA replaces
thymine in DNA as the nitrogenous base.
Question 2
What is the role of rRNA in protein synthesis?
Answer
Ribosomal RNA binds to messenger RNA and
assembles the amino acids in the order needed
for the protein to be synthesized.
Question 3
Which regions of the mRNA travel to the
ribosome; introns, exons, or both?
Answer
Only exons, which contain coding information,
travel to the ribosome. Introns, noncoding
nucleotide sequences, do not travel to the
ribosome.
Question 4
What is an anticodon, and what does it represent?
Answer
An anticodon is a sequence of three nucleotides
on the tRNA molecule that binds to a codon of
the mRNA strand.
Section Objectives:
• Categorize the different kinds of mutations that
can occur in DNA.
• Compare the effects of different kinds of
mutations on cells and organisms.
Mutations
• Organisms have evolved many ways to
protect their DNA from changes.
• In spite of these mechanisms, however,
changes in the DNA occasionally do occur.
• Any change in DNA sequence is called a
mutation.
• Mutations can be caused by errors in
replication, transcription, cell division,
or by external agents.
Mutations in reproductive cells
• Mutations can affect the reproductive cells of
an organism by changing the sequence of
nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or an
egg cell.
• If this cell takes part in fertilization, the
altered gene would become part of the genetic
makeup of the offspring.
Mutations in reproductive cells
• The mutation may produce a new trait
or it may result in a protein that does not
work correctly.
• Sometimes, the mutation results in a
protein that is nonfunctional, and the
embryo may not survive.
• In some rare cases a gene mutation may
have positive effects.
Mutations in body cells
• What happens if powerful radiation,
such as gamma radiation, hits the DNA
of a nonreproductive cell, a cell of the
body such as in skin, muscle, or bone?
• If the cell’s DNA is changed, this mutation
would not be passed on to offspring.
• However, the mutation may cause problems
for the individual.
Mutations in body cells
• Damage to a gene may impair the function
of the cell.
• When that cell divides, the new cells also will
have the same mutation.
• Some mutations of DNA in body cells affect
genes that control cell division.
• This can result in the cells growing and
dividing rapidly, producing cancer.
The effects of point mutations
• A point mutation is a change in a single
base pair in DNA.
• A change in a single nitrogenous base can
change the entire structure of a protein because
a change in a single amino acid can affect the
shape of the protein.
The effects of point mutations
mRNA
Normal
Protein
Stop
Replace G with A
mRNA
Point
mutation Protein
Stop
Frameshift mutations
• What would happen if a single base
were lost from a DNA strand?
• This new sequence with the deleted base
would be transcribed into mRNA. But then,
the mRNA would be out of position by one
base.
• As a result, every codon after the deleted
base would be different.
Frameshift mutations
Deletion of U
Frameshift
mutation
mRNA
Protein
Frameshift mutations
• This mutation would cause nearly every
amino acid in the protein after the
deletion to be changed.
• A mutation in which a single base is added or
deleted from DNA is called a frameshift
mutation because it shifts the reading of
codons by one base.
Chromosomal Alterations
• Changes may occur in chromosomes as
well as in genes.
• Alterations to chromosomes may occur in a
variety of ways.
• Structural changes in chromosomes are called
chromosomal mutations.
Chromosomal Alterations
• Chromosomal mutations occur in all living
organisms, but they are especially common
in plants.
• Few chromosomal mutations are passed on to
the next generation because the zygote usually
dies.
Chromosomal Alterations
• In cases where the zygote lives and develops,
the mature organism is often sterile and thus
incapable of producing offspring.
• When a part of a chromosome is left out, a
deletion occurs.
A B C D E
F G H
A B C E
Deletion
F G H
Chromosomal Alterations
• When part of a chromatid breaks off and
attaches to its sister chromatid, an insertion
occurs.
• The result is a duplication of genes on the
same chromosome.
A B C D E
F G H
A B C B C D E
Insertion
F G H
Chromosomal Alterations
• When part of a chromosome breaks off and
reattaches backwards, an inversion occurs.
A B C D E F G H
A D C B E FGH
Inversion
Chromosomal Alterations
• When part of one chromosome breaks off
and is added to a different chromosome, a
translocation occurs.
AB C D E F GH
WX Y Z
W X AB C DE F GH
Translocation
Y
Z
Causes of Mutations
• Some mutations seem to just happen, perhaps
as a mistake in base pairing during DNA
replication.
• These mutations are said to be spontaneous.
• However, many mutations are caused by
factors in the environment.
Causes of Mutations
• Any agent that can cause a change in DNA is
called a mutagen.
• Mutagens include radiation, chemicals, and
even high temperatures.
• Forms of radiation, such as X rays, cosmic
rays, ultraviolet light, and nuclear radiation,
are dangerous mutagens because the energy
they contain can damage or break apart
DNA.
Causes of Mutations
• The breaking and reforming of a doublestranded DNA molecule can result in deletions.
• Chemical mutagens include dioxins, asbestos,
benzene, and formaldehyde, substances that
are commonly found in buildings and in the
environment.
• Chemical mutagens usually cause
substitution mutations.
Repairing DNA
• Repair mechanisms that fix mutations in cells
have evolved.
• Enzymes proofread the DNA and replace
incorrect nucleotides with correct nucleotides.
• These repair mechanisms work extremely
well, but they are not perfect.
• The greater the exposure to a mutagen such
as UV light, the more likely is the chance
that a mistake will not be corrected.
Question 1
Any change in DNA sequences is called
a _______.
A. replication
B. mutation
C. transcription
D. translation
The answer is B.
Question 2
Which is more serious, a point mutation
or a frameshift mutation? Why?
Answer
A frameshift mutation is more serious than a
point mutation because it disrupts more codons
than a point mutation.
Question 3
Why are chromosomal mutations rarely passed
on to the next generation?
Answer
Few chromosomal changes are passed on to the
next generation because the zygote usually
dies. If the zygote survives, it is often sterile
and incapable of producing offspring.
DNA: The Molecule of Heredity
• Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
demonstrated that DNA is the genetic
material.
• Because adenine can pair only with thymine,
and guanine can pair only with cytosine,
DNA can replicate itself with great accuracy.
DNA: The Molecule of Heredity
• DNA, the genetic material of organisms, is
composed of four kinds of nucleotides. A
DNA molecule consists of two strands of
nucleotides with sugars and phosphates on
the outside and bases paired by hydrogen
bonding on the inside. The paired strands
form a twisted-zipper shape called a double
helix.
From DNA to Protein
• Genes are small sections of DNA. Most
sequences of three bases in the DNA of a
gene code for a single amino acid in a
protein.
• Messenger RNA is made in a process called
transcription. The order of nucleotides in
DNA determines the order of nucleotides in
messenger RNA.
From DNA to Protein
• Translation is a process through which the
order of bases in messenger RNA codes
for the order of amino acids in a protein.
Genetic Changes
• A mutation is a change in the base sequence
of DNA. Mutations may affect only one
gene, or they may affect whole
chromosomes.
• Mutations in eggs or sperm affect future
generations by producing offspring with
new characteristics. Mutations in body
cells affect only the individual and may
result in cancer.
Question 1
How does DNA control the structures and
functions of a cell?
Answer
DNA determines the structure of proteins. Some
proteins become important cell structures. Other
proteins, such as enzymes, control chemical
reactions that perform key life functions.
Question 2
The process through which the order of bases in
messenger RNA codes for the order of amino
acids in a protein is:
A. transcription
B. translation
C. replication
D. point mutation
The answer is B.
Question 3
Why would scientists use nucleotide sequences
to identify bodies of crime victims?
Answer
In comparing nucleotide sequences in the
DNA of a crime victim with nucleotide
sequences from a possible close relative of
the crime victim, scientists can determine if
the two are related.
Question 4
What happens when a stop codon is reached
during translation?
Answer
When a stop codon is reached, translation ends
and the amino acid strand is released from the
ribosome.
Question 5
A ________ bond forms between adjacent
amino acids during translation.
A. nucleotide
B. phosphate
C. hydrogen
D. peptide
The answer is D.
Question 6
What is the difference between a purine and a
pyrimidine?
Answer
A purine is a double-ringed nitrogenous base.
A pyrimidine is a single-ringed nitrogenous
base.
Question 7
Why is DNA replication important to cell
division?
Answer
Without DNA replication, new cells would
have only half the DNA of their parents.
Species could not survive and individuals
could not grow or reproduce successfully.
Question 8
At the beginning and end of replication, which of
the following are instrumental in breaking and
bonding the hydrogen bonds between bases?
A. pyrimidines
B. purines
C. nucleotides
D. enzymes
The answer is D.
Question 9
What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?
Answer
The messenger RNA acts as a genetic message,
providing the complete information, in
sequences of codons, for the building of a
protein.
Question 10
The DNA sequences of a parrot _________.
A. are more similar to those of a clam than a
robin
B. are more similar to a fern than a dog
C. are exactly the same as those of a human
D. contain exactly the same nucleotides as
those of a beetle
The answer is D.
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