Chapter 12
Small Animal Nutrition
Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives




List the energy-producing and non-energyproducing components of food
List the classes of carbohydrates and
describe the catabolism of carbohydrates
Differentiate between lipids and fats and
describe the general structure of triglycerides
Describe the structure and functions of
proteins
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2
Learning Objectives




Differentiate between essential and
nonessential amino acids
Explain the importance of water in metabolic
reactions
Differentiate between microminerals and
macrominerals and give examples of each
List the fat- and water-soluble vitamins and
explain the importance of vitamins in
metabolism
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3
Learning Objectives



Define the following terms: nutrient,
ingredient, formula, nutrient profile, calorie,
and kilocalorie
Differentiate between dry, semimoist, and
moist food and describe the characteristics of
each
Describe considerations in evaluating homeprepared diets
Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4
Learning Objectives




List the legal requirements of pet food labels
and considerations in evaluating pet food
label information
Describe the components of a nutritional
assessment for dogs and cats
List special considerations in feeding adult,
pediatric, geriatric, pregnant, lactating,
injured, and ill dogs and cats
List and describe routes and procedures for
providing nutritional support to hospitalized
patients
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5
Nutrients
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6
Nutrient Terms

Nutrient


Ingredient


Raw material used in food compounding
Formula


Energy and metabolic substrate classified as
essential or nonessential
Ingredient portions for a particular diet type
Nutrient profile

Quantitative distribution of individual nutrients
within finished formula
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7
Nutrient Terms

Nutritional value


Analysis of a particular food


Can only give an indication of nutrient content and
availability of a particular nutrient
Nutritional value



Cannot be identified solely on an ingredient statement
Based on the absorptive capability of a nutrient
Based on availability
Digestibility of a food

A measure of biological availability
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8
Balanced Diet


Supplies all key nutrients
Supplies energy needed to meet daily
requirements of the animal at its particular
stage of life
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9
Food Digestibility

Digestibility


Determined by a mathematical equation
Compares amount of a nutrient in the food and
amount of the same nutrient in the feces
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10
Above-Average Digestibility





Foods higher in fiber will be lower in
digestibility
Protein
greater or equal to 85%
Fat
greater or equal to 90%
Carbohydrate
greater or equal to 90%
Energy
greater or equal to 85%
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11
Palatability

Involves sensory factors such as:



Taste
Smell
Color
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12
Palatability Factors of Food
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13
Additives



Non-energy substances
Non-nutrient substances
Purposely added to foods to enhance:




Color
Flavor
Texture
Stability
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14
Protection Against Microbes

Physical and chemical means



Dehydration (dry food)
Heat (moist and dry food)
Chemical treatments

Preservatives (semi-moist and some dry food)
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15
Humectants



Preservative additives
Bind to water
Inhibit mold and fungal growth
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16
Antioxidants


Chemical agents
Protect fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins
from becoming rancid


By inhibiting oxidation
Vitamins C and E
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17
Energy-Producing Nutrients

Carbohydrates


Fats


Broken down into simple sugars
Broken down into triglycerides
Proteins

Broken down into amino acids
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18
Energy Gained From Food


Used to maintain and repair cell structures
Higher degree of cellular activity = higher
energy (nutritional) demands

Growth
 Reproduction
 Exercising
 Healing from injury
 Combating a disease
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19
Cellular Activity Requires
Energy





Oxygen synthesis
Oxygen transport
Heat production
Muscle contraction
New tissue synthesis
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20
Carbohydrates



Provide body with energy
Excess stored as glycogen or converted to fat
Include:



Sugars
Starches
Fibers
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21
Sugars

Monosaccharides (simple sugars)

Disaccharides (complicated sugars)


Multiple sugars
Broken down to provide energy stored in form
of ATP
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22
Starches

Formed after complex digestion process

Involves complex microbes and enzymes
 Salivary glands cannot always initiate digestion
 Food mixed with hydrochloric acids and enzymes
in stomach
 Primarily digestion and absorption in small
intestine

Example is glycogen

Animal-specific starch
 Provides rapid supply of glucose
 Stored in liver and skeletal muscle tissue
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23
Insoluble Fibers


Referred to as complex carbohydrates
Examples


Cellulose, lignin
Sources

Corn, wheat, rice, barley, oats, potatoes
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24
Fiber

Major energy source for grazing animals


Digested by bacteria and protozoan microbes in
large intestine of rumen, cecum, and large
intestine
Results of fiber digestion

Short-chain fatty acids
 Acids then transformed into glucose

Role of fiber in diet

Depends of physiology of animal’s digestive tract
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25
Role of Fiber in Companion
Animals




Increases bulk and water content of intestine
Reduces caloric density for weight-control
food while maintaining satiety
Stabilizes blood sugar levels by extending
time the nutrients are absorbed (diabetes
mellitus)
Assists in regulating bowel function
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26
Breakdown Products from
Fiber



Maintain normal colonic function
Decrease pathogenic intestinal bacteria
Help in preventing intestinal cancer
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27
Fats





Serve as primary sources of energy
Supply essential fatty acids
Facilitate digestion
Act as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D,
E, K)
Provide palatability and texture to food
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28
What Is a Lipid?



Fat—if solid at room temperature
Oil—if liquid at room temperature
Dietary fat

Composed of units called triglycerides
• One to three fatty acids
• Held together by one molecule of glycerol
 Highly digestible
 Twice the caloric density of similar quantity of
protein or carbohydrate
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29
What Is a Fatty Acid?

Saturated


Monounsaturated


No double bonds in primary hydrocarbon chain
Fatty acid with one double bond
Polyunsaturated

Fatty acid with more than one double bond
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30
Essential Fatty Acids





Polyunsaturated and long-chain
Necessary for body function
Cannot be synthesized by mammals
Must be obtained from food
Known essential fatty acids


Linoleic, α-linoleic, and arachidonic (cats)
Linoleic, α-linoleic (dogs)
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31
Functions of Essential Fatty
Acids



Integral part of kidney and reproductive
function
Key component to cell membrane formation
Key component of prostaglandin production
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32
Deficiencies of Essential Fatty
Acids





Alopecia
Dull hair coat
Anemia
Hepatic lipidosis
Essential fatty acid deficiency in the critical
patient



Increases susceptibility to infection
Weakens cutaneous capillaries
Promotes poor wound healing
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33
Amino Acids



Defined as any organic compound containing
amino and carboxyl group
Occur naturally in plant and animal tissue
Chief constituents of protein
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34
Protein Structure




Long chains of amino acids held together by
peptide bonds
Roughly 22 known amino acid groups
Arranged in countless number of ways, each
having unique properties and characteristics
Considered building blocks for plant and
animal protein
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35
Proteins




Principal structural component of all body
organs and tissues
Serve as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
Essential to all living cells
Functions




Regulation of metabolism
Construction of cell membranes
Formation of muscle fiber
Growth and repair of tissue
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36
Amino Acids

Nonessential


Can be synthesized from other sources
Essential


Cannot be synthesized in the body in adequate
quantities
Must be supplemented in diet
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37
Essential Amino Acids
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38
Taurine


Essential amino acid in cats
Deficiency results





Retinal degeneration
Reproduction insufficiency
Impaired immune system
Dilated cardiomyopathy
Deficiency signs


Occur after prolonged periods of depletion
Owners typically report visual changes or poor
depth perception (“miscalculating” jumps)
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39
Biological Value of Protein



All proteins are not of equal worth
Proportion utilized for growth and
maintenance of normal body systems is
measure of its biological value
Animal proteins vs. plant-based proteins
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40
Dietary Protein




Protein is added to most commercial pet
foods
Correct balance of amino acid composition
necessary to classify protein high in biological
value
Greater the protein quality, the less is needed
Digestibility is an important factor
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41
Commercial Pet Food

Often a mix of animal and plant substances



Provides multiple protein sources
Improves overall quality of food by providing wide
amino acid profile
High-quality protein needed for periods of

Growth
 Physical exertion
 Pregnancy and lactation
 Repair of damaged tissues
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42
Protein Deficiency


Amino acids not stored in body
What happens if amino acids aren’t
consumed?



Breakdown of protein in viscera
Breakdown of protein in skeletal muscle
Gluconeogenesis
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43
Gluconeogenesis



Initiated by liver and kidneys using glycerol,
lactate, and glucogenic amino acids
Prolonged starvation in normal animals
Signs of protein deficiency
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44
Cats

Specifically adapted to high-protein, lowcarbohydrate diets

Rely on gluconeogenic amino acids as a
major source of energy

Continuous protein catabolism
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45
Catabolism



Chronic anorexia, or starvation
Can be reversed
“Refeeding syndrome”


Metabolic complications if food is consumed or
administered too rapidly
Clinical signs
• Cardiac arrhythmias
• Muscle weakness
• Hemolytic anemia
• Respiratory failure
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46
Excess Dietary Proteins

Converted to fat and stored as adipose tissue

Although cats must consume twice the
protein as dogs, feeding a food with proper
levels of protein is essential

Metabolism of excess amino acids increases
liver and kidney workload
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47
Protein Requirements



Consumed every day to replace amino acids
lost to catabolism
Quality of protein is limiting factor
Amino acids for protein synthesis
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48
The Nutrient Water



Does not produce energy
Most important nutrient
Functions:





Essential for almost every chemical reaction
Transports solutes and gases
Regulates temperature
Lubricates joints and eyes
Balances electrolytes
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49
Minerals

Inorganic chemicals

Important part of a balanced diet

More than 18 mineral elements are essential
for mammals

Macrominerals

Microminerals
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50
Macrominerals

Concentrations are of fundamental
importance

Include calcium, phosphorous, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfur

Minerals circulate as electrolytes

Electrolyte functions
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51
Measurement of Minerals

Considerations for evaluating feeds




Macrominerals


Animal vs. plant-derived food substances
Amount of mineral content
Amount of mineral utilized by animal
Measured in diet as a percentage (%)
Microminerals

Expressed in parts per million
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52
Mineral Deficiencies

Calcium



Results in nutritional secondary
hyperparathyroidism
Deficiency frequently develops when inappropriate
homemade foods are prepared for dogs, cats, and
reptiles
Phosphorus


Impairs growth
Impairs normal physiological processes
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53
Microminerals



Nutrients that are required in relatively small
amounts
Essential for normal health in companion
animals
Examples

Iron, manganese, copper, iodine, and selenium
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54
Iron







Micromineral
Central component of hemoglobin
Central component of myoglobin molecules
Carries oxygen in blood and muscle
Important in enzymatic processes of cellular
respiration
Body has limited capacity to excrete iron
Homeostasis is obtained by iron absorption
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55
Iron

Stored predominantly in the liver, bone
marrow, and spleen

Most commercial pet foods have high
concentrations of iron because of meat
content

Deficiency seen in chronic blood loss

Nursing pediatric patients susceptible to
anemia
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56
Other Micromineral
Constituents

Chromium, fluoride, nickel, molybdenum,
silicon, vanadium, arsenic

Amounts required in the diet are low

Deficiencies rarely seen in animals fed a
balanced diet

Dietary excesses can be toxic
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57
Microminerals and
Macrominerals


Can interact with one another
Antagonistic interactions



One mineral reducing transport or efficacy of the
other
Most interactions are antagonistic
Synergistic interactions

Two minerals acting in complementary fashion
• Enhancing biological function
• Or, sparing the other mineral
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58
Vitamins

Organic compounds necessary for normal
physiological function



Most cannot be synthesized in the body
Therefore must be present in the diet
Classified in two categories

Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K
 Water-soluble: B-complex and C
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59
Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Require bile salts and fat clusters for passive
absorption

Absorption occurs through wall of duodenum
and ileum

Stored in lipid deposits in all tissues
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60
Water-Soluble Vitamins

Absorbed via active transport

Poorly stored in the body

Excesses lost via the urinary tract

Deficiencies and toxicities vary due to
absorption differences
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61
Vitamins

Not energy nutrients

Not all types are essential for every species

Intake in excess of requirements does not
improve performance

Water-soluble vitamin toxicity

Commercial pet foods
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62
Vitamin K



Plays a critical role in coagulation of blood
Deficiencies result in clotting abnormalities
and hemorrhage
Hemorrhage can cause death, without
emergency supplementation
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63
Antioxidants

Help free body of damaging effects of free
radicals

Certain vitamins (C and E) are antioxidants

Supplementation above the normal daily
requirements can be beneficial

Other antioxidant functions
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64
Antioxidant Additives in Pet
Foods




Natural alternative to synthetic preservatives
Improve palatability
Protect immune function
Improve cognitive dysfunction in senior dogs
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65
Nutraceuticals

Endogenous substances that may provide
medical or health benefits

Emerging area of food and food technology

Examples: chondroitin sulfates, glucosamines

May inhibit inflammatory mediators and
promote joint stability

Contain omega-3 fatty acids
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66
Common Client Questions
About Pet Food




What is the best food to feed my pet?
What are the differences between
commercial brand foods?
Is home cooking suitable?
Can I supplement an existing diet with table
food?
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67
Proper Answers



Most commercial pet foods are superior in
nutrient content, convenience, cost, and
overall quality
Published homemade pet food recipes are
generally imbalanced
Energy and nutrient requirements are not
linear; long-term use of homemade pet food
will result in nutrient deficiencies or excesses
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68
Commercial Pet Food Terms



Complete diet
Balanced diet
Combining the two types of diets—animals
fulfill both nutrient and energy requirements
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69
Complementary Diet

Combines two or more food sources to
improve outcome
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70
All-Purpose Diet


Marketed under premise that one particular
diet type meets nutritional demands at every
life stage
Typically provides nutrients in excess of what
is required by adult or geriatric animal
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71
All-Purpose Diet

Typically found in grocery stores

Targets uninformed consumers

Generally sold as off-brand or generic foods

Formulated for growth and lactation periods
of companion animals

Not appropriate for the other stages of life!
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72
Special-Purpose Food



Provides specialized nutrition for individual
needs
Designed for animals with specific nutritional
needs
Often sold in veterinary hospitals
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73
Forms of Commercial Pet
Foods

Dry foods
3%-11% water

Semi-moist foods
25%-35% water

Moist foods
70%-83% water
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74
Dry Foods




Characteristically have lower protein, fat, and
minerals on a dry matter basis than moist
foods
Produced with higher caloric density
Typically cost less than most moist foods
Provide a dental hygiene benefit
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75
Production of Dry Food

Raw ingredients are mixed and moistened
into dough

Dough is kneaded, cooked, and processed
via extrusion

High temperature cooks and shapes kibbles
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76
Pros of Dry Pet Foods

Less palatable than moist forms results in
less chance of overeating

Cost of feeding a pet per day, or cost per year

Which has a lower true cost ?

Cost effective

Convenient

Easy to use; allow owner to leave food out for
extended periods
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77
Cons of Dry Pet Foods



Pets may eat on an ad-lib basis
Access to unlimited dry food may contribute
to obesity
Annual health examinations should include
body condition scoring and pet food
consultation as animal ages
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78
Dry Foods

Water may be added to create “gravy” to
increase palatability

Palatability may also be improved by mixing
dry food with canned food

If food is moistened with water and left
outside in high temperatures, bacterial
proliferation is possible
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79
Food-Borne Illnesses

Warn pet owners not to add water to dry pet
foods and leave them exposed for prolonged
periods at high ambient temperatures

Bacteria from water-saturated dry or canned
food can produce a potent toxin that causes
vomiting and diarrhea

Can be avoided by ensuring consumption of
moist food within a few hours
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80
Semi-Moist and Soft-Dry
Foods

Moisture content ranges from 25%-40%

Composed of a meat and cereal mixture
extruded into small, attractive shapes

Contain artificial flavors

Humectant preservatives and cellophane
wrapping

Antimicrobial additives
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81
Semi-Moist Foods

Contain soluble sugars

Contain simple carbohydrate sources

Not recommended in obese or diabetic
animal

May also contain high sodium
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82
Canned or Moist Foods

Typically 70%-83% water

Most sold as complete diets, with all nutrients
present

Three forms: ration loaf, all-meat appearance,
and processed meats/flours bound into jellied
matrix

High palatability

Requires portion-controlled feeding to avoid
overconsumption
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83
Canned or Moist Foods

Preserved with heat sterilization and vacuum
techniques to ensure anaerobic environment

Enamel liners insulate the product and
provide excellent nutrient stability

Shelf life ranges from 12-18 months

Storage at normal temperatures

Palatability may decrease toward end of shelf
life
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84
Moist Foods

Low caloric density

Expensive on a per-calorie basis


Meat by-product ingredients more costly than
equivalent meals and flours

Higher packing costs
Mixing dry with moist foods

Increase palatability

Control cost
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85
Treats

Small food rewards

Training aide, or to reinforce love

Commercially prepared treats should not be
given in excess

Chocolate not recommended—toxic in high
concentrations

Commercial treats are not subject to testing,
as are pet foods
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86
Supplements

Should not be confused with treats

Generally given to correct a nutritional
deficiency

Routine use is not necessary if pet is
provided with a balanced commercial pet
food
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87
Home-Prepared Diets

Many owners prefer to prepare homemade
foods despite the ease, less-expense, and
better overall nutritional balance of
commercial foods

Homemade recipes may not be appropriate
for individuals with unique physiological
requirements

Close monitoring of the diet’s efficacy is
essential
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88
Requirements for Formulation
of a Home-Prepared Diet





Detailed knowledge of specific nutrient need
Knowledge of nutritional value of ingredients
Knowledge of any possible dietary
interactions
Must factor in possible deterioration of
nutrients during cooking and storage
Need to consider time and effort required in
making meals
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89
Home-Prepared Diets


Imperative that owner follows a veterinarianapproved recipe to ensure a balanced diet
No human daily supplements can be added
to make a complete and balanced homemade
pet diet
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90
Home-Prepared Diets




Possible to achieve the same nutrient
balance with a homemade food as with a
commercially prepared food
Owners should consult with a veterinarian or
preferably a board-certified veterinary
nutritionist to obtain a balanced recipe
Owner compliance should be well regulated
Diets should be kept in conformity with
animal’s needs and life-stage changes
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91
Home-Prepared Diets

Are crudely balanced using the average
nutrient content of specific foods and
computer formulation

Require kitchen scale that weighs in grams,
and blender or food processor

Necessitate regular dietary histories and
patient monitoring of pets

Owners should be committed to ensuring
consistent, proper homemade foods
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92
Technician’s Role
for Home-Prepared Diets

Evaluate by thorough physical examination






Body weight
Body condition score
Activity level
Assess existing homemade food recipe
Make appropriate formula substitutions
Offer nutritionally adequate recipes
Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
93
Home-Prepared Diets



May contain excessive protein
Often deficient in calories, calcium, vitamins,
and minerals
Canine formulations



Most use carbohydrates and meat sources
containing more phosphorus than calcium
Often exceed nutritional requirements
Feline formulations


Deficient in fat
Have low energy density
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94
Do 5 Food Groups Appear in
Recipe?





Carbohydrate, fiber source from cooked
cereal grain or potato
Protein
Fat
Mineral, particularly calcium
Multivitamin and trace mineral
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95
What is the Type and Quantity
of the Primary Protein Source?



Overall protein quality can generally be
improved by using an animal-source protein
Skeletal muscle protein from different animal
species has very similar amino acid profiles
No great advantage to feeding one meat
source over another
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96
Is the Primary Protein Source
Lean or Fatty?


Fat content varies in different cuts of meat
When specified protein source is lean:
additional animal or vegetable fat source
should compose 2%-5% of formula to ensure
energy density requirements
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97
Is the Carbohydrate Source a
Cooked Cereal or Potato? Is It
Present in a Higher or Equal
Quantity than the Meat Source?

Feline carbohydrate/protein ratio


1:1 to 2:1
Canine carbohydrate/protein ratio

2:1 to 3:1
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98
Is a Source of Calcium
and Other Minerals Provided?


Homemade food almost never balanced in
minerals
Most homemade foods require specific
calcium supplement
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99
Is Source of Vitamins
and Other Nutrients Provided?

Supplements must provide:





Vitamins
Microminerals
Fatty acids
Taurine
Other specific nutrients of concern for cats and
dogs
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100
Storage of Homemade Foods

Specific instructions necessary

Most lack preservatives and are high in
moisture content

Must refrigerate or freeze homemade foods

Monitor food for color and odor changes
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101
Examinations for
Patients Who Eat Homemade
Foods

Regular veterinary examinations


At least two per year
Regular nutritional reviews
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102
Cooking for Homemade Diets


Improves digestibility of starch in
carbohydrates
Longer periods of cooking


Depreciate vitamin concentration
Denature protein of meat sources
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103
Diets and Stool Production
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104
Pet Food Labels

Pet food regulation varies from country to
country

Labels represent contract between the
manufacturer and the consumer

Standards for label information established by
The Association of American Feed Control
Officials (AAFCO)

AAFCO Statement
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105
Required Pet Food Label
Information




Net weight
Product designator (e.g., cat food)
Name and address of manufacturer or distributor
Guaranteed analysis in percentages




For crude protein, fat, fiber, and moisture
List of ingredients in descending order of
predominance by weight
Nutritional adequacy statement
Feeding guidelines
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106
Optional Pet Label Information



Feeding instructions
Caloric content
Nutritional adequacy statements:



Totally nutritious
Or, complete and balanced
Not needed on treats or snacks intended for
intermittent feeding
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107
Evaluating Pet Food Labels


Manufacturer can often supply a more
reliable source of data
Ingredients on labels are listed by weight


Heaviest ingredients listed first; lightest last
Pitfalls


Percentages don’t reflect exact amount of nutrient
Conservative guaranteed nutrient levels
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108
Ingredient Percentages

Only one ingredient named


Modifying words accompany named
ingredient


10% for moist foods and 25% for dry foods
“With” modifies named ingredient


At least 70% total product is named ingredient
3%
Term flavor is used

Flavor must be detectable only by animal
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109
Moisture Percentages



Percentage rules also apply
Maximum moisture content: 78% in United
States
Pet foods may exceed amount if labeled:




Stew
Gravy
Juice
Contains milk replacer
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110
Market Categories






Grocery brands
“Premium” grocery bands
“Gourmet” foods
Generic foods (white label) and private label
foods (a grocery chain's own brand)
Private label brands
Specialty-brand pet foods
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111
Companion Animal Nutrition


Energy requirements (food)
Nutrients that provide energy



Proteins, carbohydrates, fats
Nutrients are burned
Energy is released in form of heat

Measured in kilocalories or calories
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112
Kilocalorie


Amount of heat (energy) needed to raise
temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree
Celsius
Energy requirements (food)


Calculated in kilocalories
Expressed in kilocalories
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113
Daily Energy Requirements




Number of calories needed to maintain an
animal’s weight
Increases in exercise, lactation, and growth
will increase energy requirements
Decreases in these activities will lower
energy requirements
Increased energy demands over and above
the needs for maintenance = production
energy requirements
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114
Daily Energy Requirements


Predictive equations are useful
Need to also assess body composition and
condition of animal to determine caloric
needs
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115
Body Condition Scoring (BCS)

Useful visual method to estimate animal’s
body composition and relative fatness


Very thin, underweight, ideal, overweight, obese
Physical examination for assessment of pet’s
muscle mass and fat stores

Feel the ribs
 Include dietary history
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116
Nutritional Assessment





Patient’s history
Physical examination
Body weight
Body condition scoring
Hydration status
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117
Baseline Nutritional
Assessment

Initial assessment upon admission

Serial assessments throughout course of
hospitalization

Role of the veterinary technician
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118
Feeding of Dogs




Dogs typically omnivores
Advertising emphasizes carnivorous aspects
Some dogs eat grass and feces (natural
behavior)
Nutritional energy requirements




Calculations based on metabolic body weight
Variations in body composition considered
Variations in breed considered
Based on life stage
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119
Feeding Amounts for Dogs



Calculated from energy value of the food
Each dog evaluated individually due to
differences in both activity and environment
Based on regular weighing and body
condition scoring
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120
Frequency in Feeding Normal
Dogs



Once a day supplies daily energy
requirements
2-3 times a day coincides with family meal
times
Avoid late evening feeding


Avoid inconvenience of middle of night
eliminations
Avoid large meals before exercise

Minimizes gastric dilation and torsion, especially in
large breeds
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121
Canine Pediatric Nutrition

Milk



Complete food source for neonates
Contains water, protein fat, vitamins, minerals
Colostrum



Key nutritional factor immediately after birth
Provides fluid for vital postpartum circulatory
expansion
Carries protective maternal antibodies
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122
Colostrum

Somewhat sticky and viscous

Owners should ensure that dam is producing
colostrum, and that puppies are consuming it
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123
Nursing Puppies


Most are healthy and capable of active
nursing
In general, no assistance needed from
technician or owner

Exceptions are toy-breeds
 Ensure mothers are lactating well
 Ensure mothers are attentive to puppies
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124
Growth Rate of Puppies


Normal rate is 2-4 grams/day/kg of
anticipated adult weight
Lesser rate is an indication that puppies are
not receiving adequate amounts of milk
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125
Feeding Orphan Puppies


Dose initially 15% of puppy’s weight per day,
divided into several doses
Feed via syringe and rubber feeding tube, or
small animal nursing bottle
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126
Feeding Tubes



First 3 days of life are most critical
Careful placement techniques
Proper amounts of formula
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127
Gavage


Indicated if puppy is unable to consume
formula or dam’s milk
Equipment includes syringe and 5F or 8F
infant feeding tube
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128
Tips for Gavage

Gag reflex is not present until 10 days

Easy passage to pre-measured distance usually
indicates correct placement

After delivery of fluid, kink tube before
withdrawal

Withdraw tube quickly to prevent aspiration

Burp animal after feeding

Check for residual formula after several feedings
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129
General Feeding Guidelines

Stomach is full when belly is distended or
animal turns its head away from bottle

New formula made at each feeding

Formula at room temperature before
administration

Equipment meticulously clean or sterile

Monitor weight gain by use of gram scale
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130
Considerations for Formula
Feeding

Patient response to feeding may not be
typical


Diarrhea may occur




Gag reflex not developed for 10 days
Dilute formula until resolved
Record baseline birth weight
Record healthy puppy weight gain
Assist elimination every 2-4 hours (or after
each feeding)
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131
2 to 3 Weeks of Age


Food dose approximately 25% of body weight
divided into 4-6 daily feedings
Small amounts of food given incrementally
when puppies are able to eat solid food on
their own
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132
Low Birth Weight Puppies


Correlates with increased mortality
Prone to:




Hypoglycemia
Hypothermia
Sepsis
Separate from bitch, if necessary
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133
Hypothermia

Common in neonates

Associated with shallow respirations,
bradycardia, gastrointestinal paralysis, coma

Feeding is contraindicated if the animal is
hypothermic (<94º F)

Increase body temperatures slowly
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134
External Warming Equipment




Circulating hot water blankets
Warmed rice bags
Hot water bottles
Heat lamps
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135
Weaning of Puppies

3 weeks of age


4 weeks of age


Peak lactation occurs
5 weeks of age



Puppies introduced to semisolid gruel
Intake of mother’s milk reduced
Larger amounts of semisolid to solid food eaten
6-8 weeks of age

Weaning concludes
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136
Feeding Growing Dogs

Proper nutrition is essential for normal growth
and development

Excessive intake can lead to medical
complications!
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137
Nutritional Requirements for
Feeding

Change is rapid during puppy’s growth


Growth rates also vary between breeds
Supplements not needed with commercial
diets
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138
Feeding Growing Puppies


Feed 4-5 times daily during post-weaning
period (until about 10 weeks old)
Cut to 3 meals daily until 50% of adult body
weight is reached (about 4 months old)
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139
Feeding of Adult Dogs

Primary objective: find the maintenance
energy requirement and proper food dose to
maintain ideal body composition



Based on energy value of food
Based on activity levels
Based on breed sizes
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140
Small and Toy Breeds




Have higher ratio of surface area to body
weight
Have higher energy requirements per unit of
body weight
Have relatively small stomachs
What should diets have?



Higher energy content
More nutrient-dense matrix than for larger breeds
High digestibility
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141
Feeding Strategies


Feed each dog separately when possible
Time-restricted method works well



Feed 1-3 times daily for 5-15 minutes
Feed with ad-lib consumption
Method for dogs who overeat


Feed 2-3 times daily
Serve calculated food dose (one-half to one-third
of daily volume)
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142
Other Feeding Tips







Follow feeding instructions on pet food label
Utilize food dose calculators
Utilize manufacturer’s technical information
Feed maintenance pet food for the average
house pet 1-7 years old
Eliminate table food, or use in moderation
Avoid feeding of animal bones
Nylon bones and chew toys are safer
substitutes for natural bones
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143
Feeding Do’s







Do provide fresh water
Do feed for control of calorie intake
Do feed for ideal weight and body condition
Do provide consistent food
Do ritualize time and place of feeding
Do use life-stage feeding concepts
Do feed treats with nutrient profile and caloric
density considerations
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144
Feeding Don’ts








Don’t provide stagnant or frozen water
Don’t allow excess calorie consumption
Don’t feed obesity-prone dogs on a free-choice basis
Don’t rotate flavors or brands on frequent basis
Don’t make rapid transitions
Don’t use growth-lactation food for adult maintenance
Don’t supplement a balanced, high-quality food
Don’t allow competitive eating
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145
Problems Associated with
Group Feeding



Competitive eating
Over-consumption
Anorexia
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146
Feeding Adult Dogs with
Increased Energy Needs

Diet and feeding protocols



Vary according to training schedules
Vary according to amount of work performed
Extra energy supplied in pet foods by:



Increased fat
Increased caloric density
Increased digestibility
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147
Diets for Working Dogs



Specific nutrient composition varies and
depends on type of activity performed
Staples include carbohydrates and fats for
intense muscular exercise
Adequate water intake throughout work
period is crucial
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148
Aerobic Conditioning for
Animals

Advantages




Increases efficiency of fatty acid metabolism in
muscles and cardiovascular system
Spares rate of glycogen consumption in muscles
Increases capacity for work
Recommendations


Slowly convert to more calorie-dense food
Feed majority of daily calories after completion of
training to help prevent hypoglycemia
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149
After Whelping

Bitch returns to regular body weight

Expect food intake to rise rapidly by 50% the
first week, and by 200%-400% by fourth week
of lactation

Free choice food should be available

Monitor water intake

Perform frequent physical examinations
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150
Feeding During Lactation



Lactation markedly increases energy, protein,
and mineral requirements
Nutrient requirements greater than any
other adult life stage
Proper nutrient intake directly linked to
successful milk production
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151
Nutritional Factors for
Lactation





Highly digestible protein
Increased concentrations of fat
10%-20% soluble carbohydrates
2-5 times more calcium
Supplements generally not needed
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152
Feeding Methods During
Weaning





Terminate food intake for 24 hours to help
bitch slow and stop milk production
Advise clients not to allow any puppies to
nurse
Resume feeding using maintenance foods at
one-third of the customary maintenance level
On day 2, two-thirds of normal feeding dose
is recommended
Full intake of food on day 3
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153
Obesity-Prone Animals


Ratio of too much fat to lean tissue
Contributing factors:





Genetic background
High-calorie diets and snacks
Physical inactivity
Endocrine or neuroendocrine disorders
Gonadectomy
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154
Treating Obesity





Feeding programs
Exercise strategies
Educating clients on health risks of obesity
Routine weighing
Body condition scoring
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155
Overfeeding



Primary cause for obesity during growth life
stages
During juvenile growth, induces increased
numbers of fat cells
Adipocyte hyperplasis is prevented by using
meal feeding for puppies, kittens, and foals
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156
Overeating




Consuming more energy than is expended
Feeding table food to the picky eater
Feeding diets high in fat
Prevention


Volume-restricted meals
Elimination of calorie-rich treats
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157
Genetic Predisposition
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158
Other Causes of Obesity

Declining lean body mass

Declining activity level during normal aging
processes

Decreasing energy requirements in geriatrics

Competitive eating

Surgical neutering
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159
Health Risks of Obesity








Coronary heart disease
Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance
Hypertension
Pulmonary disorders
Liver, kidney, and gall bladder disease
Colon, ovarian, endometrial neoplasia
Musculoskeletal diseases including joint stress, hip
dysplasia, and osteoarthritis
Muscular injuries including cranial cruciate ligament
rupture
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160
Obese Patients




Anesthetic risks
Intolerant to exercise and heat
Mortality is increased
Linked with some endocrine diseases
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161
Assessment of Obesity





Visually examine subcutaneous fat deposits
Palpitate ribs, groin, and tail head
Obtain radiographs of abdomen and thorax
Measure body composition by weighing
animal indirectly
Utilize ideal weight tables for purebred
animals
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162
Obesity Treatment




Feed calorie-restricted, low-energy food
Feed diet high in fiber
Exercise
Restriction of treats


No human snack foods or commercial pet treats
Teamwork between owner, veterinarian, and
technician necessary
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163
Ages of Geriatric Dogs

Toy and small-sized breeds


Medium-sized dogs


7 years
6 years
Large and giant breeds

As early as 5 years
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164
Age-Associated Changes in Dogs






Reduced immune response
Reduced digestive and renal function
Reduced glucose tolerance
Changed smell and taste perception
Reduced lean body mass
Reduced basal metabolic rate
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165
Geriatric Nutrition




Influenced by individual body condition
Influenced by individual health history
Maintenance of optimal weight is ideal goal
Senior diets are recommended



Reduced protein
Reduced phosphorus and sodium
Increased fiber
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166
Healthy Older Cats


Limiting protein with normal renal and hepatic
function can contribute to muscle loss
Cats should not be fed a low-protein diet just
because they are old
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167
Potential Benefits of
Antioxidant Diets





Combat signs of brain aging
Improve learning ability
Protect against free-radical damage
Improve cell membrane health
Optimize senior health
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168
Geriatric Weight Loss


Calorie control may begin (or be continued) in
some geriatrics
Weight loss may be symptom of:

Systemic disease
 Dental or oral pain
 Failing sense of smell
 Heightened finicky tastes
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169
Renal Disease


Chronic progressive renal disease common in
older dogs and cats
Loss of renal function reduces ability to
excrete:

Phosphorus
 Urea
 Other products of protein metabolism
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170
Dietary Considerations
for Renal Disease


Avoid excessive protein, phosphorus, sodium
Use commercial prescription diets


Designed with dietary goals in mind
• e.g., increased potassium
• e.g., increased omega-3 fatty acids
Readily available from veterinarian
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171
Cats



Carnivorous predators
Not “small dogs”
Protein metabolism is unique
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172
Factors Influencing Feeding of Cats



Have reduced carbohydrate metabolism
Require higher percentage of protein
General requirements for food




High-protein foods
Low-carbohydrate foods
Amino acids (e.g., taurine, arginine)
B vitamins
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173
Feline-Specific Requirements
in Food





Taurine
Vitamin A
Niacin
Pyridoxine
Arachidonic (fatty) acids
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174
Basis for Energy
Recommendations
for Cats





Signalment
Body condition score
Activity level
Hydration status
Dentition
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175
Needs of Orphaned Kittens



Adequate colostrum immediately after birth is
critical
Stable environment is important
May need assistance in urination and
defecation
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176
Feeding of Orphaned Kittens
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177
Kittens





Weigh between 85 and 120 g at birth
Gain an average of approximately 100
g/week
Caloric needs: 22-26 kcal/100 g of body
weight for first 3 months of life
Schedule feedings at least 4 times a day
In general, male kittens grow faster than
females
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178
Formula for Kittens

Preparation should follow label instructions

Initial feedings have less volume (but not less
frequency) than directed by manufacturer

Should be warmed to about 100° F (37.8° C)

Feeding equipment must be cleaned
immediately after use
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179
Formula Feeding of Kittens



Increasing amounts of formula are given,
based on weight gain and satiation
Weaning generally begins at 7-9 weeks
Growth-sustaining kitten foods are fed 2-3
times daily until 10 months of age
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180
Feeding Adult Cats



Do feed a consistent diet
Employ a feeding schedule to eliminate
finicky behavior and food aversion
Most cat owners tend to feed ad-lib
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181
Commercial Feline Treats

Usually nutritionally synonymous with dry cat
food

Only given in moderation

“Natural" treats preferred by some owners
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182
Hairballs



Occur commonly in cats due to meticulous
grooming habits
Owners may observe periodic gagging,
retching, and regurgitation or vomiting of hair
and mucus
Hairballs often tubular and usually do not
contain food or bile
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183
Energy and Nutrient
Requirements During Feline
Pregnancy and Lactation




Must support both queen and offspring
Requirements can be 3-4 times normal
maintenance during peak lactation
Ingesting larger amounts of food may not be
feasible
Queen uses stored body fat to support milk
production in early part of lactation
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184
Feeding Geriatric Cats

Consider overall health before diet selection

Monitor food intake in association with weight
changes

Note water intake
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185
Feeding of Geriatric Cats





No single food can meet needs of every cat
Dietary modification can help to optimize
health or modulate disease
Significant protein restriction not
recommended
Moderate protein restriction recommended if
evidence of chronic renal failure
Commercial diets available with balanced
nutrient contents for optimizing geriatric
health
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186
Feline Obesity




Common nutritional problem
Obtain detailed dietary history
Calculate amount of food offered during a
calorie-restricted diet
Encourage client to participate in weight
reduction programs
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187
Fasting in Obese Cats




Not recommended
Associated with accumulation of lipids in liver
Can become pathological in 5-6 weeks
Mimics idiopathic feline hepatic lipidosis
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188
Obesity Prevention



Nutritional counseling during routine yearly
examinations
Dietary therapy
Gradual introduction of new food over 7-day
period
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189
Dietary Recommendations
for Obese Cats



Multiple small meals throughout day
Low-calorie, high-fiber diet substances
Commercial and prescription diets now
tailored for obese cats


With low carbohydrate and high protein matrix
Help increase amount of water consumed
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190
Specialty Diets for Obese
Cats


Low-carbohydrate, high-protein formulas
Added L-carnitine


Helps feline patient lose weight while maintaining
lean muscle mass
Can decrease accumulation of fat in liver cells
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191
Feline Urolithiasis


Most common calculi: struvite and calcium
oxalate
Amount and balance of mineral elements in
diet affect formation of urinary calculi
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192
Diet Factors Influence
Development of Uroliths

Water Intake

Other factors effecting concentration

Digestibility

Dietary content of minerals

Quantity of diet consumed

Influence of diet and eating frequency on
urine pH
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193
Diets Can Be Formulated
to Induce Acidic Urine

Struvite crystal formation not possible at urine
pH <6.5

Addition of acidifiers such as methionine,
ammonium chloride, and phosphoric acid

Certain animal proteins and corn glutens can
also promote acidic urine

Diets composed of vegetable proteins and
mineral salts promote alkaline urine
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194
Acidifying Diets

Recommended to safely prevent and manage
struvite-related LUTD

Can have potential toxicity

Can overpower kidneys

May cause chronic acidosis in cats

Not recommended for kittens
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195
Acidifying Diets





Inadvisable in the older cat
No diet promotes dissolution of calcium
oxalate uroliths
Formulated to induce higher urinary pH to
minimize risk of crystal formation
Maintains urine acidity (pH 6.2-6.4)
Keeps magnesium intake at non-excessive
levels
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196
Risk Control Measures
for Struvite Crystalluria

Maintain an acidic urine pH (6.2-6.4)

Avoid magnesium intake
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197
Risk Control Measures
for Calcium Oxalate Crystalluria

Maintain a more alkaline urine pH (6.4-6.8)

Avoid excess calcium, sodium, magnesium

Increase cat’s water consumption
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198
Feline Lower Urinary Tract
Disease (FLUTD)



Controlling urine mineral concentrations or
pH will not always control FLUTD
Syndrome is multi-factorial
Idiopathic FLUTD



Has no known cause
Water is key factor in controlling recurrences
Preferred dietary products are canned and other
high-moisture foods
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199
FLUTD



Typically caused by struvite or calcium
oxalate uroliths, or by urethral plugs
Can be caused by feline idiopathic cystitis
(FIC)
Clinical signs:



Urinating outside box
Frequency of urination
Straining to urinate
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200
FLUTD Prescription Diets

Provide nutritional management for struvite,
calcium oxalate, or FIC

Provide controlled levels of magnesium,
calcium, phosphorous, and oxalate

Contain limited sodium and high levels of
omega-3 fatty acids
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201
Nutritional Assessment


Primary goal is to identify which patient is at
risk for malnutrition
Poor nutritional status associated with
adverse clinical outcomes
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202
Baseline Nutritional
Assessment

Evaluate both clinical and biochemical data

Analyze patient history, including nutritional
background

Perform a thorough physical examination

Perform serial assessments throughout
course of hospitalization
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203
Nutritional Background


When was last complete meal or nutritional
support given?
What was the type and route of nutrition?
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204
Canines

Healthy animals can use body fat stores for a
longer time

Can preserve body protein and nitrogen
reserves

Can decrease resting energy expenditure to
survive
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205
Felines


Healthy felines do not use body stores or
preserve body protein and nitrogen reserves,
as do canines
Felines use proteins for metabolic energy
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206
Simple Starvation
in the Normal, Healthy Patient

A shift to fatty acids for fuel

Mobilization of glucose in the liver

Decrease in metabolic rate

Decrease in blood glucose

Production of ketones to minimize glucose
requirements
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207
Prolonged Starvation

Tissue proteins are mobilized for:



Visceral protein synthesis
Antibody production
Gluconeogenesis
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208
Consequences of Starvation



Protein depletion
Life-threatening
Development of hepatic lipidosis in cats
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209
Chronically Undernourished
Patients at Increased Risk





Immunosuppression
Hormonal imbalance
Infection
Aspiration pneumonia
Surgical complications
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210
Common Surgical
Complications





Wound dehiscence
Delayed tissue healing
Decubital ulcers
Sepsis
Pulmonary infections
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211
Nutritional support often becomes the MOST
essential element in the outcome of critical
illness
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212
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213
Malnourishment in the
Critical Patient




Affects all body systems
Affects mentation
Exacerbates weakness and depression
Speeds up the entire disease process
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214
Critical Patients



Metabolism accelerated to support healing
Metabolism accelerated to resist infection
Structural proteins consumed as source of
energy
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215
Indications for Nutritional
Support

Recent weight loss of >10%

Absent or poor food intake for more than 2
days

Acute illness or injury

Acute muscle wasting

Heavy gastrointestinal or urinary system
losses of protein or electrolytes
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216
Indications for
Specific Nutritional Support

Hypoalbuminemia

Body condition score under optimum value of
3

Surgical intervention or hospital procedures
that may result in a reduction of oral intake
over 3-5 days
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217
Assessment of Nutritional
Status

Subjective global assessment (SGA) to
determine nutritional status:



Dietary history
BCS
Current morbidity index of illness or injury
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218
Enteral Feeding



Upper alimentary tract used for assisted
feeding
Preferred method of feeding when possible
Safest and least expensive
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219
Enteral Feeding Methods

Coaxed feeding

Appetite stimulation with drugs

Forced oral feeding

Tube administration
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220
Feeding of Enteral Food
Types

Similar food to that which liver is using from
body stores


Canine food


e.g., fat, carbohydrates, protein
Provides protein at least 4-6 g/100kcal
Feline food

Provides protein at least 6-8 g/100kcal
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221
Initial Enteral Feeding

Ensure vomiting has ceased

Feed small amount of an easily digestible low
fat diet

Amount divided into portions

Normal diet gradually reintroduced after
appetite and stool have returned to normal
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222
Tube-Feeding Schedules

Day One: dilute 1/3 food amount with 2/3
water

Day Two: dilute 2/3 food with 1/3 water

Day Three: full food amount
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223
Monitor Response to Tube Feeding


Patients may feel initial discomfort with
administration
Will adapt after several feedings
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224
Abdominal Tube Feeding

Common signs of discomfort



Restlessness, salivation, abdominal bloating,
vomiting
Radiographic confirmation
Consider slow “trickle” feedings
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225
Serious Complications
of Tube Feedings







Pulmonary aspiration
Diarrhea
Constipation
Tube occlusion
Peritonitis from improper tube position
Delayed gastric emptying
Bacterial contamination
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226
Tube Feeding Guidelines








Monitor patient for abnormal responses
Avoid excessive stress associated with
restraint
Monitor all tubes for blockage or kinking
Cap all feeding tubes to prevent entry of air
Ensure food substances at room temperature
Flush with water, before and after feeding
Monitor for gastric emptying
Monitor weight and stool production
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227
Gastric Motility

Monitor by checking contents of stomach by
aspirating tube prior to feeding

If greater than 1/3 of previous feeding
remains in the stomach, recommend
subsequent feeding be skipped

If two consecutive feedings are missed, notify
veterinarian

Feces should be analyzed for normal
composition
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228
Stomach Capacity

Dogs
 Capacity
≈ 90 ml/kg
 Amount fed typically should not exceed 50
ml/kg

Cats
 Capacity
should never exceed 100 ml
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229
Tube Placement

Always confirm with radiographs prior to initial
feeding

Monitor daily

Increased lung sounds

Areas of dullness or auscultation

Coughing and fever
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230
Prevent Tube Feeding
Complications





Always ensure tube patency prior to feeding
Monitor for delayed gastric emptying
Monitor GI function
Mark tube entry
Flush tube before and after use
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231
Prevent Tube Feeding
Complications

Treat tube insertion site as a wound

Inspect tube daily for possible migration
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232
Calculate Nutrient
Requirements

Calculate resting energy requirement (RER)



Calculate illness energy requirement (IER)


RER = 30 x (body weight in Kg) + 70
or . . . [ RER = 70 x (body weight in Kg)0.75 ]
IER = RER x illness factor
Calculate amount of food required

Food amount (ml) = IER  Caloric density of
selected food (Kcal/ml)
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233
Suggested Disease Factors

Cage rest


Surgery, trauma, cancer, sepsis


1.1
1.2-1.5
Severe burns, head trauma, ventilator
patients

1.7-2.0
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234
Parenteral Nutrition (PN)


Refers to delivery of nutrients intravenously
(IV)
Candidates:

Severe pancreatitis
 Inflammatory bowel disease
 Peritonitis
 Post-operative surgery
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235
Parenteral Nutrition

Compounded liquid diet of:

Electrolytes
 Proteins
 Water
 Carbohydrates
 Fat
 Vitamins
 Minerals

Formulated on case-by-case basis
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236
Parenteral Nutrition Delivery

Administration through catheter:





Central
Peripheral
Intraosseous
Intraperitoneal
Sterile technique critical
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237
Complications of
Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN)

Catheter-related sepsis

Air embolism
 Pneumothorax
 Central venous thrombosis
 Catheter occlusion
 Hypoglycemia
 Hyperglycemia
 Hyperlipidemia
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238
Patient Management During
TPN Administration




Maintain sterility with IV catheter and fluid
bags
Inspect the catheter insertion site, and
change bandages daily
Agitate the bag gently every few hours
Do not disconnect the IV lines
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239
Laboratory Analysis During
TPN

Monitor electrolytes

Monitor liver function

Monitor for coagulopathies

Monitor CBC for infection
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240
Nutritional Considerations
for the Critical Patient

Critical illness = Hypermetabolic process

Mobilization occurs at expense of body tissue

Body becomes reliant on its protein stores to
provide gluconeogenesis

Consequences

Alternations in protein homeostasis

Loss of lean body mass
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241
Reduce Parenteral
Complications


Maintain enterocyte function
Combine enteral and parenteral feeding





Reduce bowel atrophy
Reduce bacterial translocation
Prevent intestinal mucosal deterioration
Prevent intestinal hypertrophy
Facilitate healing by promoting intestinal growth
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242
Clinical Signs of
Hypermetabolic State





Tachycardia
Tachypnea
Hyperglycemia
Eventual breakdown of skeletal muscle protein
Mobilization of body fat
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243
Monitoring

Evaluate respiratory effort

Evaluate lung sounds

Monitor vascular integrity

Monitor serum protein and albumin levels
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244
Clinical Signs of Poor Nutrition





Unexplained weakness
Dull mentation
Malnutrition
Deterioration of respiratory function
Recumbent patient
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245
Clinical Signs of Poor Nutrition



Decreased kidney function
Decreased muscle function
Weakened cardiac muscle
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246
Feeding Pet Birds

Common nutritional problems



Inadequate diets
Poor feeding practices
Patients may need nutritional support,
different from normal diet
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247
Dietary-Induced Diseases

Each species of bird has differences in
nutritional demands

Diseases occur frequently in psittacine and
passerine bird species, due to diverse
nutrimental requirements

Feeding and nutritional disorders can result
from all-seed diets and diets supplemented
with fruits, vegetables, and other human
foods
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248
Small Birds





High metabolic rates
High-energy requirements
Need continuous supply of food
Natural diet of insects, fruits, seeds
Primary natural diet is not seeds

Seeds deficient in nutrients
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249
Primary Seed Diets

Composed primarily of sunflower seeds




High in fat
Low in calcium
Low in vitamin A
Perpetuates obesity and/or nutritional deficiencies
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250
Fruits and Vegetables


They are eaten preferentially because of high
water content
They dilute key nutrients present in
nutritionally balanced commercial foods
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251
Common Avian Nutritional
Requirements

All birds have similar nutritional requirements



Water, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats,
vitamins, inorganic elements, minerals
Different species require different amounts
Calcium required in largest quantity

Hypocalcemia can be alleviated
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252
Proteins

Approximately 20 amino acids required by
companion birds

10 of the 20 are essential amino acids

Infant birds need glycine and proline

Increased proteins may be needed during
reproductive cycle

Insects may supply increased protein needs
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253
Commercial Avian Foods

Benefits



Nutritionally balanced
Convenient
Disadvantages

No testing for nutritional adequacy
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254
Seed Diets

Seeds are not best or most natural food

Seeds in most commercial mixes are not
native to areas where most pet bird species
originate
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255
Well-Balanced Seed Mixtures


Can supply essential nutrients
Rarely appropriate as sole nutritional source
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256
Homemade Mixed-Food Diets




An alternative if bird will not accept
commercially prepared foods or seed
mixtures
Can result in excellent feathering and
appropriate body mass
Will not cause nutritional deficiencies, if
prepared carefully from scientifically
developed recipes
Ensure owner compliance!
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257
Mineral Grit


Dietary supplement
Insoluble grit remains in gizzard


Soluble grit is completely digested


Quartz or silica
Oyster shells or cuttlefish
Over-supplementing can be harmful
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258
Water

Single most important dietary component

Makes up >50% of a bird's body weight

Intake is important for thermoregulation

Breeding females require increased amounts
of water
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259
Water Requirements

Birds should not go more than a few hours
without access to fresh, clean water

Some foods require free water for efficient
digestion and absorption

Provide water in easily accessible container

Avoid large water bowls to discourage
bathing
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260
Rabbits

Dietary requirements vary according to age
and use


Pet rabbits
Show and production rabbits
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261
Recommended Rabbit Diets






Feed alfalfa-based pellets with a hay
supplement on a daily basis
Feed at rate of 0.25 cup/2.27 kg (5 lb) body
weight, divided into two meals
Remove uneaten portions
May need increased feeding during gestation
and lactation
Offer good-quality grass hay ad-lib
Some “treats” are acceptable
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262
Feeding of Rabbits



Regular times are important
Rabbits are nocturnal in nature
Adequate fresh water essential
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263
Vitamin A Supplements for
Rabbits




Deficiency can result in infertility and other
reproductive complications
Adequate vitamin A contained in most fresh
alfalfa pellets
Dangerous to add supplement to adequate
diet
Recommend purchasing feeds within 90 days
of production
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264
Pellets


Feeds containing antibiotics not
recommended
Feeds high in calcium or vitamin D not
recommended
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265
Guinea Pigs

Fastidious eaters

Herbivores with normal coprophagous
behavior

Daily fresh water is essential
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266
Recommended Diet for
Guinea Pigs

Food with increased fiber

Freshly milled guinea pig feed

Do not feed rabbit food, or any other diet
designed for another species

Provide access to hard food diets that
promote gnawing
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267
Vitamin C in the Guinea Pig
Diet



Require daily dietary ascorbic acid
supplement
Minimal vitamin C in commercially prepared
diets
Fresh fruit supplements commercial diets

Spinach, kale, parsley, chicory, bell peppers,
oranges
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268
Ascorbic Acid
Supplementation

10 mg/kg/day is required

30 mg/kg/day needed, if pregnant

If supplementation is not provided in feed,
1 gram/L may be added to water
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269
Clinical Signs of Vitamin C
Deficiency

Alopecia

Anorexia

Dehydration

Poor wound healing

Eventual periodontal disease
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270
Hamsters

Omnivores

Nocturnal, so feed at night

Require hard food diets

Fed pelleted hamster diets or mixes

Need to drink water from heavy bowl or water
delivery system
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271
Gerbils

Herbivorous

Granivorous

Typically eat frequent small meals

Commercial gerbil food available

Diets supplemented with green vegetables,
fresh fruit, and hard food or pieces of wood

Need fresh water daily
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272
Rats and Mice

Omnivorous

Commercially available pellet-based diets
supply most nutritional requirements

Diets are supplemented with small amounts
of apples, tomatoes, or biscuits


“Treats” may encourage handling
Fresh water should be supplied daily in sipper
bottles
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273
Chinchillas



Hindgut fermenters
Diet devoid of fiber can cause diarrhea,
constipation, bloat, or rectal prolapse
Recommended diet




Grasses and seeds
Supplemented with small quantities of dried fruits,
nuts, carrots, green vegetables, or green grass
Need dust baths for grooming needs
Daily fresh water necessary
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274
Ferrets





Typically carnivores
Normal seasonal fluctuations in body weight
High-fiber diets are not recommended
Pelleted commercial ferret diets available
Commercial diet may be supplemented
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275
Chelonians



Land tortoises
Predominantly herbivores
Captivity diets primarily composed of
vegetables
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276
Typical Tortoise Diet

85% Vegetables

10% Fruit

>5% High-protein foods
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277
Caring for the Captive
Tortoise




Vary the diet
Provide shallow water dish
Provide sunlight or ultraviolet light
Multivitamins containing vitamin D may be
added to diet every 1-2 weeks
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278
Aquatic Turtles



Feed only when they are in the water
Need variety of foods to achieve balance
Majority of diet should be composed of
natural foods
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279
Vitamin A Deficiency
in Captive Turtles

Clinical signs





Clinical findings


Respiratory infections
Edematous eyes
Urogenital tract obstructions
Beak overgrowths
Related to anorexia and dehydration
Prevention with beta-carotene in diet
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280
Snakes

Carnivores

Feed varied diet every 1-2 weeks

Specific dietary needs depend on the species
of snake

Nutritional deficiency rare

Water requirements low
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281
Lizards


Most are omnivorous
Require vitamin and mineral
supplementation, with emphasis on a variety
of food
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282
Feeding of Lizards

Juvenile lizards


Adults


Require feedings 1-2 times a day
Require feedings 2-3 times per week
Most lizards are diurnal

Require daytime feedings and time to bask in
natural or ultraviolet light
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283
Herbivorous Lizards



Require varied diet to ensure adequate
nutritional balance
Leafy greens are recommended dietary
substances
Commercially prepared diets are available
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284
Common Iguanas



Require protein for normal growth and
development
Juvenile iguanas in captivity need more
protein and calcium than adults
Protein sources


Dog food, monkey biscuits, tofu
Provide water in bowl for bathing and drinking
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285
Amphibians

Pets included in group



Most adults are carnivores
Captive amphibians



Frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts
May adapt to eating dead prey or meat
Should be fed 2-3 times a week
Replication of natural environment important
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286