Vicarious Learning
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Vicarious Learning
 Observational learning
 Change in behaviour due to the experience of observing a
model
 Anecdotal evidence
 Cats open cupboards, latches
 Dog open gates
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Early Work on Vicarious Learning
 Thorndike
 Puzzle box
 Experienced model, naïve learner
 Animals don’t learn by observation
 Many animals need to observe successes and failures
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Not so simple…
 Some behaviours may LOOK like observational
learning, but aren’t…
 Contagious Behaviour
 Social Facilitation
 Local/Stimulus Enhancement
 Affordances
 Mimicking/Imitation
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Contagious Behaviour
 Species-typical behaviour is released when others
perform the behaviour
 Test performance with model absent
 Example
 You may eat when you’re already full if you are with
others who are eating
 Same with animals…
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Social Facilitation or Interference
 Performance is changed based on the mere presence of
others
 Get better at easy, well-trained tasks
 Get worse at difficult tasks
 Before/After tests, baseline, control group
 Example
 Performing better at competitions, shows, tournaments
 Slacking off at work
 Zanjonc – cockroaches in easy & difficult mazes
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Local or Stimulus Enhancement
 Attraction to objects which others are using, then
learn about object on own
 Attraction to locations where others have been
 Not learning from others, just attract attention to object
 Two-Action Tests
 Example
 A chimp is attracted to a stick that another has
discarded. The attraction allows for learning
experiences with the stick.
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Affordances
 Actions of the model show the observer about the way
the environment operates
 Model is not strictly necessary
 Two-Action with same affordance
 Example
 An observer watches a model push open a door and
learns that the door swings outwards

Model not necessary, a string pulling the door open could
result in same conclusion
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Mimickry or Imitation
 “Copy-catting”; reproduction of observed behaviour
 Doesn’t necessarily show learning!
 Outcome
 Example
 Dick & Anne get to take a treat from one of two bowls
 One bowl contains good candy, one has yucky candy
 Dick reaches into the “green” bowl and gets the bad
candy
 If Anne reaches into the “green” bowl, she has imitated
but not learned!
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Human Infants & Imitation
 At what age can humans imitate?
 Metzolff & Moore (1977)
 12 to 21 day old infants
 Facial gestures: tongue protrusion, mouth open, lip
protrusion
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Experiment
 Experimenter: 90 sec passive face (baseline)
 Infant shown gesture four times
 Imitation-test period
 Video taped and scored by “blind” judges
 Supports imitation
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% of mouth open response
% of tongue-out response
Results
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25
baseline
tongue-out mouth open
Experimenter’s Gesture
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5
baseline
tongue-out mouth open
Experimenter’s Gesture
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Infant Research
 Replication difficult
 Tongue protrusion elicited by other means
 Infants’ attention: general arousal?
 Evolutionary advantage
 Observing and copying behaviour of parents, siblings,
etc. may bring more attention
 Is it vicarious learning?
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Generalized Imitation
 Don’t see the outcome of the model’s behaviour, but
the observer imitates anyway
 Prior experience with vicarious learning
 We learn that imitating others’ behaviour may provide
reinforcement
 We generalize from one condition to another
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Baer & Sherman (1964)
 Children observe puppet
 Mouthing
 Head nodding
 Speaking nonsense
 Lever presses
 Imitation of first 3 behaviours reinforced
 All 4 behaviours imitated
 Stop reinforcement
 All 4 behaviours decrease (extinguish)
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Vicarious Classical Conditioning
 Debate as to whether or not classical conditioning can
be learned vicariously
 Does an observer’s behaviour change due to the
observation of the model’s behaviour?
 Is the observer being directly classically conditioned
when observing the model?
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Haner & Whitney (1960)
 Model has finger on shock-device; observer watches
 Model removes finger when light is on
 Record GSR of observer
 Shock = US
 Model’s behaviour = UR
 Light = CS
 Increased GSR = CR of anxiety
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Bernal & Berger (1976)
 Observer watched video of eyeblink conditioning of
model
 Tone paired with airpuff
 Recorded observers’ tendency to blink
 Observers acquire eyeblink CR to tone
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But...
 In this study, could be higher-order classical
conditioning
 Seeing someone blink might be a CS for blinking
yourself
 Previously see people blink, if you blink you avoid
aversive US
 Tone could be CS2 to previously learned CS1
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Venn & Short (1973)
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 Watch video
 Boy shows fear or
liking of Mickey
Mouse toy over
Donald Duck toy
 Key pressing for
M&Ms
Responses on Key (%)
 Baseline measure
Model Shows Fear to
Mickey Mouse Toy
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Before
Observing
Model
After
Observing
Model
Mickey Mouse
Donald Duck
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Observation of Conditioning
 No observation of CS-US pairing
 i.e. toy never paired with US
 Change in observers’ behaviour due to toy paired
with reaction of model (fear or liking)
 basic classical conditioning
 not necessarily vicarious learning
 Similar to prejudice where US was positive/negative
words
 US = positive/negative reaction of model
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Vicarious Operant Conditioning
 Some evidence that operant conditioning can be
acquired through vicarious learning
 Important to distinguish from stimulus enhancement
 Observe model’s reinforcement or punishment
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Levy, McClinton, Rabinowitz &
Wolkin (1974)
 Children observed model look at paired pictures,
indicating preferences
 Model received approval, disapproval, or neutral
consequences
 Observers’ subsequent preferences were for the
pictures that the models received approval for
selecting
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Dorrance & Zentall (2001)
 Japanese quail
 Models trained to peck or step on treadle
 http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/zentall/default.ht
m
 Two-action method controls for stimulus/local
enhancement
 Treadle always gets pressed down, so affordances are
the same
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Methods
 Observers watched one
1
model either peck at or
step on treadle
 Later tested in absence
of model
0.9
 Not contagious
behaviour or social
facilitation
0.8
0.7
0.6
Proportion
of Pecks
0.5
0.4
Proportion
Steps
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Observed Observed
Peck
Step
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Characteristics of the Model
 Authority
 Dominance
 Similarity
 Sincerity
 Attractiveness
 Venus Effect
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Characteristics of the Learner
 Uncertainty
 Sex
 Age
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Characteristics of the Situation
 Task uncertainty
 Task difficulty
 Presentation of model
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Bandura’s Studies
 Bobo the Clown experiments
 Children as observers
 Watched various models demonstrating behaviours
 Consequences of model’s behaviour
 Availability of reward
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Model
Observers
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
 Attentional processes
 Retentional processes
 Motor reproductive processes
 Incentive and motivational processes
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Miller-Dollard Reinforcement
Theory
 Vicarious learning as a variant of operant
conditioning
 Observer’s behaviour changes due to consequences
of observer’s behaviour
 Three steps:
 1. Learner observes behaviour of model
 2. Learner copies response
 3. Learner receives reinforcement
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Possible Problems
 Absence of model
 Latent learning
 Delays in behaviour common
 Lack of reinforcement
 Generalized imitation
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Comparison
 Bandura’s theory
 Innate processes, learning, and cognition
 Future expectations
 Reinforcement theory
 Behavioural; operant conditioning
 Past experiences
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Foraging
 Birds opening milk containers, pecking through
creamers
 Stimulus enhancement?
 Foraging locations
 Local enhancement?
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Television Violence
 National Television Violence Study (1998)
 8000 hours of programming
 7 days/week, 6AM-11PM for 3 years
 60% of programs contained violence
 Less than 4% contained anti-violence message
 By age 12, average child has seen 8,000 murders and
over 100,000 other acts of violence on TV
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Bandura et al (1963)
 5 minute video of Rocky & Johnny
 Johnny plays with toys
 Rocky asks to share, but Johnny says no
 Rocky beats Johnny up
 Rocky plays with toys
 Rocky puts all the toys in a sack and takes them home
 Watched how often children played aggressively (hit
Bobo doll)
 One little girl asked for a sack
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In real life…
 Causal or Correlational
 Correlation does not show causation
 3rd factor?
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Developing Phobias
 Vicarious acquisition
 Prevalence in humans?
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Treatment of Phobias
 Flooding
 Systematic desensitization
 Relaxation and shaping
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Modeling Treatments
 Modeling
 Used with the very young
 Sometimes more rapid
 May be better at generalization
 Three types of phobia reduction modeling
 1. Graduated modeling
 2. Symbolic modeling
 3. Participant modeling
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