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Perspective comparison
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Perspective comparison
Throughout the years there have been numerous perspectives and schools of thought in
regards to the discipline of psychology. One school of thought, referred to as behaviorism,
presents the viewpoint that any and all forms of behavior are related to and caused by the
individual’s environment and that all behaviors are caused by either “reinforcement” or
“association.”
Behaviorism is both a psychological movement and a philosophy. The basic
premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural
science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner
states of organisms. Other varieties, such as theoretical behaviorism, permit
internal states, but do not require them to be mental or have any relation to
subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior (Culatta,
2010).
As with all psychological schools of thought, there are numerous individuals associated
with the behaviorist theories. John Watson, B.F. Skinner and Edward Tolman were all pioneers
in the field of behavioral psychology and many of their ideas and discoveries paved the way for
modern-day psychological research and theories.
John Watson is recognized as being the originator of the school of behaviorism. After
studying for a period of time, under the renowned philosopher John Dewey while attending the
University of Chicago, Watson became dissatisfied with Dewey’s ideas and method of teaching
and began searching for another mentor to assist him in realizing his theories. After studying
with Henry Donaldson and James Angell for a period of time, Watson began to formulate
numerous hypotheses in regards to human behavior.
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Watson felt as though the discipline of psychology should not be focused on the ways the
mind worked or on the conscious or unconscious aspects of the psyche, instead; he believed that
the ways individuals behave should be studied. Watson posited that objective observations and
studies were much more useful in understanding behavior than using subjective data which could
not be scientifically proven through research. “Behaviorism assumes that behavior is observable
and can be correlated with other observable events. Thus, there are events that precede and
follow behavior. Behaviorism's goal is to explain relationships between antecedent conditions
(stimuli), behavior (responses), and consequences (reward, punishment, or neutral effect).”
(Cooper, 2009).
Following the lead of Ivan Pavlov, Watson continued researching the “phenomenon of
classical conditioning” in an effort to determine the ways in which individuals could be trained
or conditioned to respond to stimuli which would otherwise be neutral. Even though Watson
performed numerous experiments, the study he is most well-known for is referred to as the “little
Albert” experiment in which he conditioned a young child to become terrified of a white rat by
progressively pairing the animal with disturbing noises each time the rat was introduced into the
same room with the child. Eventually the child began to exhibit extreme emotional responses
when any white object came into view and even though Watson’s experiment with “little Albert”
was and still is considered to be unethical and extremely controversial, he was able to carry on
where Pavlov left off in his efforts to prove that people could indeed be classically conditioned to
display emotional responses.
John Watson’s perspectives in regards to behaviorism opened up many doors for further
studies and research in the field of psychology. His firm beliefs that human behavior should be
studied in an objective, scientific manner instead of merely assuming or guessing why people
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behave and/or react as they do helped to propel the study of psychology into the future.
Presently, the use of classical conditioning and the modifications of undesirable behaviors are
used extensively during therapy sessions and in rehabilitation facilities throughout the world.
B. F Skinner, another proponent of the behaviorist school of thought in psychology,
discovered the writings of both Pavlov and Watson while employed in a bookstore in New York
City after graduating from Hamilton College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English.
Watson’s and Pavlov’s theories and perspectives piqued his interest so intently, Skinner made
the decision to enroll in Harvard graduate school to pursue further studies in the field of
psychology.
Possibly, Skinner is most well-known for developing the psychological perspective of
“radical behaviorism” and introducing the concept of operant conditioning to the discipline.
Radical behaviorism is the theory that every action and behavior is controlled or influenced by
some sort of stimulus and not determined by free-will. Operant, instrumental or Skinnerian
conditioning is a process of learning which takes place by providing rewards for appropriate
behavior and administering punishment for undesirable behavior. Through this type of
conditioning, individuals learn to make associations between performing a particular behavior
and then receiving either a pleasurable reward (positive reinforcement) or an unpleasant penalty
(negative reinforcement or punishment) which then, respectively increases or decreases the
behavior.
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based
on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of
Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.
strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be
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extinguished (i.e. weakened). Skinner studied operant conditioning by conducting
experiments using animals which he placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar
to Thorndike’s puzzle box (Simply Psychology, n.d.).
Much like Watson, Skinner believed that the discipline of psychology should be based on
observable facts, individual’s immediate environments and the actions and behaviors which
result from that environment. Also, the practice of modern-day behavioral modifications
techniques are based on the work and theories of Skinner as well as those of Watson however;
skinner went a step further in introducing a modification technique referred to as “shaping”.
Shaping is simply nothing more than progressively “conditioning” an individual, or an animal in
Skinner’s case, to perform actions or behaviors which are only remotely related to the ultimate,
desired behavior. Also known as “the method of successive approximations” shaping can be used
to produce behaviors which would have otherwise been considered to be impossible or unlikely.
Contrary to the theories of Watson and Pavlov, Skinner discovered that behaviors were
predominantly based on the actions which occurred following a response and not on stimuli
which were presented before a response. With the development of a device which Skinner called
a “cumulative recorder” he was able to demonstrate rates of response with a “sloped line.”
Skinner’s perspectives are presently used for the treatment of numerous mental and emotional
disorders such as phobias and to assist in extinguishing addictive behaviors. His psychological
principles of operant conditioning are widely used in the classroom in order to assist students to
enhance their performance. Skinner did not believe that the human mind and body were separate
entities although he never denied the individual’s ability to have personal thoughts. He did
however, believe that these thoughts were meant to be studied and researched in the same
manner as outwardly observable actions and behaviors.
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Edward C. Tolman was also a member of the behaviorist school of thought although he
did not necessarily subscribe to the perspectives of his contemporaries who adhered more to the
classical model of behaviorism. Tolman felt as though the classical perspectives presented
information in a form which was far too simple & crude and therefore he suggested the use of
“intervening variables” which would allow a better and more thorough explanation of
relationships between variables. Tolman also used various theories and perspectives from Gestalt
psychology which was beginning to gain popularity during his graduate study at Harvard during
the early 1900’s.
With the use of a cognitive approach to explain behavior, Tolman proceeded to develop a
research study in which he would utilize rats in a maze in order to prove his theory of “cognitive
mapping” which posited the ways in which individuals used their memory to solve problems and
process their immediate environment. Through numerous experiments with the rats in the mazes,
Tolman was able to conclude that the animals could find their way through without the use of
any sort of reward or reinforcement. When he placed rats in the mazes which had no previous
experience with the boxes, they were much slower to find their way out than those which had run
the mazes several times.
Tolman thus proposed that animals as well as humans acquire a ''cognitive map''
which represents their surroundings mentally by direct associative experience.
Based on this work Tolman discounted the need for direct contact with behavioral
consequences as a necessity of learning. And because you can only see such
learning when rewards are made available, he called the learning acquired from
mere exploration ''latent'' learning (The cognitive perspective, n.d.).
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Obviously and contrary to the perspectives of Watson and Skinner, Tolman believed that
animals and humans alike did not require any type of reinforcement, positive or negative, in
order to learn and perform particular behaviors. His theory of latent learning and cognitive
theory of learning differentiated him from other individuals in the field who deemed themselves
as behaviorists. Tolman categorically opposed Watson’s theories and perspectives and in doing
so, labeled his brand of psychology as “purposive behaviorism.” Otherwise referred to as
“molar” behaviorism, Tolman believed that his studies would prove that the ability to learn was
not dependent on enforcing or reinforcing connections between a response which supposedly
resulted from the presentation of a stimulus and that both operant and classical conditioning were
not necessarily needed for an individual to learn.
Similar to Watson and Skinner, Tolman opened up many new doors and brought
numerous innovative ideas to the field of psychology. His theory of cognitive learning changed
minds and brought new perspectives in regards to the ways the human mind functions and how
individuals are able to learn. While none of these renowned psychologists were necessarily
wrong or inaccurate in their findings, and even though they did not agree on various matters,
they each had their own visions and perspectives which greatly enhanced future research and
continues to influence present investigative studies in the field of psychology.
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References
Cooper, S. (2009, May 3). John B. Watson Behaviorism. Continuing Education Home Study
NCBTMB, NCCAOM Ethics Fibromyalgia TMJ Acupressure TCM. Retrieved January 11,
2011, from http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/behaviorism/Watson.html
Culatta, R. (2010, July 12). Behaviorist Learning Theory. Innovative Learning. Retrieved
January 11, 2011, from http://www.innovativelearning.com/teaching/behaviorism.html
Simply Psychology. (n.d.). Skinner: Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement in
Psychology. Psychology Degree and A-Level Study and Learning Resources. Retrieved
January 11, 2011, from http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/operantconditioning.html
The Cognitive Perspective. (n.d.). dakota fmpdata. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from
dakota.fmpdata.net/PsychAI/PrintFiles /Cognitive.pdf