Political and Economic Change
I. Political Change Methods
Revolutions
• A fundamental change in the political and social institutions
of a society
• Often accompanied by violence and civil war
• Usually has grass roots popular support
• More than just a leadership change
• Examples
–
–
–
–
–
–
Industrial Revolution
Bolshevik Revolution
Chinese Revolution
Iranian Revolution
Mexican Revolution
US in 1776?
Reforms
• A significant change to the political or
economic system to improve conditions
• Not radical, absent of revolutionary change
Coup d'état
• French translation means blow (stroke) to the
state
• Act of overthrowing the existing government,
usually done by the military
• May or may not lead to a revolution
• Africa; between 1952 and 2000, 33 countries
experienced 85 coups
• Unsuccessful attempt in Russia against Boris
Yeltsin
War
• Clausewitz- “Politics by other means.”
• Types
– Interstate conflicts
– Civil War
– Guerrilla Warfare
• Examples
– Nigerian Biafran Civil War
– Iran-Iraq War
Political Change: Trends and Types
Political Liberalization
• Occurs when a nondemocratic system becomes
more politically open and less repressive
• Government expands individual rights and
freedoms
• Usually takes place with a regime change
• Enhances legitimacy
• China’s change enhances their legitimacy
• Soviet’s Gorbachev led to more destabilization
Democratization
• Transformation process
from a non-democracy to a
procedural democracy to a
substantive democracy
• May be incomplete
democratization
• Pace varies
• Samuel Huntington
“democratization waves”
• Is economic liberalization a
necessary precursor?
Stages of democratization
1. Breakdown of nondemocracy
(authoritarianism)
• Democratization from above
– CCP in China allowed privatization
• Democratization from below
– PRI movement in Mexico to open up politics
2. Establishment of democracy
•
•
•
•
Decision stage
Elites develop new institutional framework
Country adopts new constitution
National referendum to adopt new
framework?
– Russia
3. Consolidation of democracy
• Democracy very unlikely to fall apart
• Would require cataclysmic events to destroy
• US during the Great Depression and WWII
democracy stayed strong
When is democracy consolidated?
• Free and fair elections are routine
• Peaceful transition of power through elections is
routine
– 2 turnover rule
• Can survive tests of democracy
– US 2000 presidential election
• Adherence to rule of law, peaceful
• Legitimacy
• Lengthy period of time
– UK
Democratic breakdown
• Democracy breaks down, creeping
authoritarianism
• Juan Linz 3 stages:
– Crisis Stage
• A huge event emerges, Russia & Chechnya
– Breakdown stage
• Rules change in the system and freedoms erode, since 1992,
50 journalists have been murdered for their professional
activity in Russia
– Re-equilibration
• Acceptance of new less democratic rules, par for the course
II. Economic Change
• Nationalization
– Government takes over existing private
companies, state monopolies
– Oil in Mexico and Iran
Privatization
• Government
owned enterprises
are sold to the
public
• Can increase
corruption
• Russia 1990s
• UK & Thatcherism
in the 1980’s
Economic Liberalization
• Policies to move the country towards free
market capitalism
• Removal of price restrictions
• Privatization of most industries
• Encouragement of foreign direct investment
• Reduce regulatory measures, trade barriers,
and government spending
• Mexico and NAFTA
Economic Development Statistics
• GDP
– Gross domestic product
– GNP just includes citizens
• GDP per capita
– GDP divided by population
• HDI
– Human development index
– Infant mortality, literacy rates and other quality of life
issues
• PPP
– Purchasing Power Parity
– Takes into account the real cost of living
Gini Index
• Measures the
level of income
inequality in the
countries
around the
world in a 0-1
scale.
• The lower the
number, the
more equality
• MDCs (EDCs)UK
• LDCs- Nigeria
• NICs- Mexico
• Countries in
transition,
former
communist
states- Russia
• 1st, 2nd, 3rd
World
countries
Economic Development Strategies
• ISI
– Import substitution industrialization
– Mexico WWII to early 1980s, Latin America
– State fosters industrialization, low taxes and food
prices
• Structural Adjustment
– Stresses integration into the world markets
– World Bank forces on highly indebted 3rd world
countries
– Privatization
– Nigeria
Modernization Theory
• Western model is ideal
• Requires education, urbanization, middle
class, human capital investments by
government
• Economic development is related cultural
changes
• Fosters democratization
• China?
Dependency Theory
•
•
•
•
Developed by Latin American scholars
Explains gap between MDCs & LDCs
Legacy of colonialism
Former colonies are underdeveloped because of the
exploitation and direct control of LDCs
• Country stays economically poor and corrupt politically
with authoritarian rule
• MDCs strategies:
–
–
–
–
Global trade extracts raw materials and wealth
Debt encouraged which prevents social spending
Multinational Corporations
International support of repressive regimes
Globalization
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pros
Interdependence
Removal of trade barriers
Rapid economic growth
Spread of information
Spread of democracy and
human rights
Global Village
Cons
• Erosion of state sovereignty
• Environmental degradation
• Homogenization of the world,
Americanization
• Increased pressure of global
markets
• Rising inequality, erosion of
the middle class?
• Can lead to violence, civil war,
state disintegration,
fragmentation? Opposites?
Whip Around
“A confidence problem exists on the part of the people of the region who
desire democratic rule in principle, but remain suspicious of both the
fashion with which democratization is presented and the purposes of the
democratic world.”
-- Recep Tayyip Erdogan (Prime Minister of Turkey)
PART FIVE:
POLITICAL & ECONOMIC CHANGE
Political and Economic Change
• Occur together and often influence one
another
• Types of Change
– Reform
• Does not advocate overthrowing basic institutions
– Revolution
• Either a major revision or overthrowing basic
institutions
• Usually has major impact in more than one area
– Coup d'état
• Replace leadership with new leaders
Attitudes Toward Change
• Radicalism
•
“When you are
right you cannot
– Rapid, dramatic changes
be too radical;
you are
– Replace current system with somethingwhen
better
wrong, you
Liberalism
cannot be too
conservative. “
– Gradual change instead of revolution Martin Luther
King, Jr.
• Conservatism
– Less supportive of change
• Reactionaries
– Protect against change
Three Trends of Development
1. Democratization
2. Move Towards Market Economies
Indicates
growing
commonalities
among
nations
Represents
fragmentation
3. Revival of Ethnic/Cultural Politics
Review of Democratization
• Democratization:
– The spread of representative governments to more
countries and the process of making governments more
representative…
– The transformation process from a nondemocratic
regime to a illiberal/procedural democracy to a
liberal/substantive democracy
• What must be present to qualify as a procedural
democracy?
• What must be present to qualify as a substantive
democracy?
Review of Democratization
• Discussion Question:
– TRUE or FALSE (be prepared to defend your answer):
– The presence of an illiberal/procedural is a
necessary condition for development of a
liberal/substantive democracy
Three Trends of Development - #1
Democratization
• Huntington’s 3 Waves of Democratization
– 1st wave – developed gradually over time
– 2nd wave – occurred after Allied victory in WWII
– 3rd wave – characterized by defeat of totalitarian
rulers in S. Amer, Eastern Eur and parts of Africa
Three Trends of Development - #1
Democratization
• Reasons for Democratization
– Loss of legitimacy by authoritarian
regimes
– Expansion of middle class
– New emphasis on human rights
– “Snowball Effect”
• Starts with political liberalization
• Democratic consolidation
– A stable political system is supported by all parts
of society
Three Trends of Development - #2
Economic Liberalism and Market
Economies
• Ideology of liberalism from 19th century
Europe
– Bourgeoisie – middle class
professionals/businessmen
• More political & economic freedoms
– Right to own property, freedom of speech, representation,
free trade
– Radicals (such as Karl Marx) advocated more
equality
• Command Economy
– Government owned industrial enterprises & sales
Three Trends of Development - #2
Economic Liberalism and Market
Economies
• Discussion Question:
• What was a major problem for 20th century
communist countries with command
economies?
Three Trends of Development - #2
Economic Liberalism and Market
Economies
• Discussion Question: What was a major
problem for 20th century communist countries
with command economies?
• A major problem was that economic growth of
major industries had not translated into
higher living standards for citizens
Three Trends of Development - #2
Economic Liberalism and Market
Economies
• Trend toward market
economies based on
private ownership of property and little
interference from govt regulation
– Mixed economy – some government involvement
– Pure Market economy – no government
involvement
• Economic Liberalization:
– Process of limiting the power of the state over
private property and market forces
• Privatization:
Command vs. Mixed vs. Market
Economies
More Centralization
Less Centralization
• Right to own
property is greatly
restricted
• All industry is
owned by the govt
• Competition and
profit are
prohibited
• Elements of
command and
market
economies
are
present/mixed
• Right to own property
is
accepted/guaranteed
• Most industry is
owned by private
individuals.
• Competition and
profit are not
controlled by the govt
Command vs. Mixed vs. Market
Economies
More Centralization
Less Centralization
COMMAND
ECONOMY
• Right to own
property is greatly
restricted
• All industry is
owned by the govt
• Competition and
profit are
prohibited
MIXED
ECONOMY
• Elements of
command and
market
economies
are
present/mixed
MARKET
ECONOMY
• Right to own property
is
accepted/guaranteed
• Most industry is
owned by private
individuals.
• Competition and
profit are not
controlled by the govt
Three Trends of Development – #2:
Economic Liberalism and Market
Economies
• Discussion Question:
Is there a correlation
between
democratization and
marketization?
Three Trends of Development – #2:
Economic Liberalism and Market
• Discussion Question:
Economies
Is there a correlation
between
democratization and
marketization?
– Mexico has moved
steadily toward a
market economy since
1980’s and
democratization has
appeared to follow
– China has been moving
toward capitalism since
Three Trends of Development #3
Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics
• Fragmentation vs. nationalism
• Politicization of Religion
– Esp. in Middle East
• Tends to emphasize difference among nations
PART TWO:
SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY &
“Sovereignty is not given, it is taken.” -- Kemal Ataturk (Turkish soldier)
POWER
(CONTINUED) “I have as much authority as the Pope, I just don't have as many people
DEMOCRATIZATION
who believe it.” -- George Carlin (comedian)
Fostering Democracy, Human Rights,
and Civil Liberties
• Democratization is the second major force
transforming contemporary political systems.
– Includes the enhancement of human rights and the
expansion of freedom.
Fostering Democracy, Human Rights,
and Civil Liberties
• The most important general distinction in classifying political systems:
– Democratic systems versus authoritarian systems
– Authoritarian: lack one or several of the defining features of democracy
• Oligarchy
• Totalitarian
– Waves of Democratization
• First: during the first half of the 20th century: Western
states
• Second: 1943 to 1960s: newly independent states and
defeated authoritarian powers
• Third: 1974 involving Southern Europe, East Asia, Latin
America, and a number of African states.
• Result: democracy more of a common goal of the global
Types of Regimes - Democracy
•
•
What is Democracy?
The word democracy means many different
things to many different people. For many,
“democratic” means good things and
“nondemocratic” means bad.
•
Basic Definition: political power exercised
either directly or indirectly through
participation, competition, and liberty.
Types of Regimes - Democracy
•
•
Various Textbook Definitions:
(Almond) - a political system in which citizens enjoy a number
of basic civil and political rights, and in which their most
important political leaders are elected in free and fair
elections and accountable under a rule of law.
•
(Barrington) A regime type that involves the selection of
government officials through free and fair elections, a
balance between the principle of majority rule and the
protection of minority interests, and constitutional limitations
on government actions.
Types of Regimes – Democracy (Liberal
vs Illiberal)
• Liberal (substantive) Democracies typically include:
Competitive Elections
Civil liberties
Rule of law
Neutrality of the judiciary
Open civil society
Civilian control of the military
• Illiberal or Procedural Democracies
Appear like other established
democracies (elections) but do not
have many of the features listed above
Types of Regimes - Authoritarian
•
•
Authoritarianism is a political
regime where a small group of
individuals exercises power
over the state without being
constitutionally responsible to
the public.
Examples?
Types of Regimes:
Authoritarian
• Authoritarian Characteristics:
• Elites who hold political power
make decisions
• Some based on Communism
• Some based on Corporatism
– Gov’t officials interact with
people/groups outside gov’t before
they set policy
– Patron-Client Systems – Favors and services to
their supporters
• Economy is tightly controlled by the political
elite
Totalitarian Regimes
• Totalitarianism is a highly centralized regime that
possesses some form of strong ideology that seeks
to transform and absorb aspects of the state, society,
and the economy.
• Much more negative connotation than
authoritarian
• Very repressive
• Use violence/terror
• Examples?
Military Regimes
• Military rule
– Nondemocratic
– Formerly prevalent in Latin America, Africa
and parts of Asia
– Usually begins with a coup d’etat
– Examples?
Theocracy
• Theocracy: a political system in which religious leaders control
political decisions and religious law provides the basis for
policy decisions.
• Examples?
“Our political institutions work remarkably well. They are designed to clang
against each other. The noise is democracy at work.” -- Michael Novak
(American philosopher)
PART THREE:
POLITICAL
STRUCTURES/INSTITUTIONS
Levels of Government
• Supranational Organizations – organizations in
which nations are not totally sovereign actors
• International or regional
• Trend towards states pooling their sovereignty
to gain political, economic or social clout
• Examples?
• Growing because of globalization
Levels of Government
• Unitary System
• Concentrates all policymaking powers in one
geographic place
• Central government is responsible for most policies
• Most countries have unitary
• Federal System
• Power divided between the central government & subunits
• Regional bodies have significant powers (taxation,
lawmaking, keeping order)
• Confederal
Unitary States
Federal States
Confederate States
• Historical examples:
– US before Constitution was ratified (originally
governed by the Articles of Confederation)
– Confederate States of America (American South
during Civil War)
– Serbia & Montenegro (2003 – 2006)
• Modern examples (arguable):
– Iroquois Confederacy (consists of six Native
American groups)
– Canada
Levels of Government
• Advantages of Federal System:
Makes it easier to govern a very large country
(physically largest countries tend to have fed
arrangements – not China though)
Better accommodates regional differences
Helps guard against concentration of political
power
• Disadvantages:
Lack of uniformity in policy (ex: voting
Devolution
• Sometimes, leaders of unitary systems voluntarily
choose to decentralize power
• Called devolution – transfer of power from a central
govt to lower/regional govt
• Why would they do this?
Three Causes of Devolution
• Ethnic Forces
– Identity based on language, religion, customs
– Ethnonationalism
• See themselves as a distinct nation with a right to
autonomy
– Example?
• Economic Forces
– Regional inequalities in income or standard of
living
• Spatial Forces
Political Institutions
• Structures of the political system
– Carry out the work of governing
– Vary by country
– Common structures that exist in most countries
are legislatures, executives, judicial systems,
bureaucracies, and armies
Example - Legislatures Vary in
Importance
U.S. Congress
Extremely active
role in forming
public policy.
House of Commons
National People’s
in Britain
Congress (China)
Public policy is
Essentially, a tool of
usually initiated
party leaders.
by the cabinet
They meet and
members and
listen to
this house is
statements by
usually a
party leaders and
deliberating body
“rubberstamp”
that formally
decisions made
enacts and
by someone else.
amends
legislation.
Executive Office
• Carries out the laws & policies
of the state
• Head of State
– Symbolizes and represents the people
– May or may not have policymaking power
• Head of Government
– In charge of actually running the government
• The Chief Executive
– Most important person in policymaking
– Varies by government
•
Parliamentary vs. Presidential
Systems
Parliamentary Systems
• Citizens vote for legislative reps,
which pick leader of executive
branch from majority party
• Head of State = mostly symbolic
figurehead
• Head of Gov’t = day to day
• Fusion of powers between executive
& legislative branches
• Cabinet members = leaders of
majority party in Parliament
• Chief executive usually does not
have veto power
• Irregular intervals between elections
and votes of confidence
•
Parliamentary vs. Presidential
Systems
Presidential Systems
• Citizens vote for
legislative reps and
executive branch leaders
• President – both Head of
State & Head of Gov’t
• Separation of
powers/System of checks
and balances
• President picks cabinet
members
• President can veto
• Fixed Terms
• Semi-Presidential
Systems
• Prime Minister and
President Coexist
•
Parliamentary vs. Presidential
Systems
Parliamentary:
– Advantages: efficiency in passing legislation, clearer
accountability to voters
– Disadvantages: instability, hasty decision-making
• Presidential:
– Adv: checks power of legislature; since directly
elected, more of a national mandate
– Disadv: difficulty removing unpopular president until
next election, gridlock!, creeping authoritarianism
• Semi Pres:
– Adv: shields pres from criticism (can blame on PM),
can remove unpopular PM and maintain stability from
pres. fixed term, additional checks and balances
Legislatures
• Branch that makes laws
• Bicameral
– Two houses
– Advantages/Disadvantages?
• Unicameral
– One house
– Advantages/Disadvantages?
Judiciaries
• Vary significantly from country to country
• Courts in authoritarian systems generally have
little/no independence; decisions controlled
by chief exec.
• Constitutional Courts
– Highest judicial body, rules on
constitutionality of laws
• Judicial review
– Power of the judiciary to review laws
and executive actions for their
Bureaucracies
• Agencies that implement government policy
• In democracies
– Discretionary power
– Continuity over time
• In authoritarian regimes
– Head of government
exercises control
– Patronage system
Common Characteristics of
Bureaucracies
•
•
•
•
•
Non-elected positions
Impersonal, efficient structures
Formal qualifications for jobs
Hierarchical organization
Red tape/inefficiency