THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
AND THE ANXIETIES
OF EMPIRE
BEFORE WE BEGIN, A COUPLE OF QUESTIONS…
• WHAT IDEALS DROVE NINETEENTH-CENTURY
BRITISH IMPERIALISM?
• WHAT REALITIES OR PRACTICALITIES ALSO DROVE IT?
• WHAT WERE
THE FOUNDATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN’S IMPERIAL POWER?
• WHAT WERE
THE FOUNDATIONS OF GREAT
BRITAIN’S COLONIAL AUTHORITY?
WHY DO THESE QUESTIONS MATTER?
• IN THE LAST DECADES OF THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY, INTRA-EUROPEAN COMPETITION OVER
COLONIAL EMPIRES LED TO INCREASING STRUGGLES ABROAD AS EMPIRES SOUGHT TO SECURE
THEIR OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS
• THIS ATMOSPHERE
OF COMPETITION AND THE COST OF CONSOLIDATION LED TO GREATER
POLITICAL DEBATE OVER THE VALUE OF IMPERIALISM
• THIS KIND OF DEBATE, AND THE HUMAN COST OF IMPERIALISM, OPENED UP SPACE FOR THE
INTERROGATION OF IMPERIAL IDEOLOGIES AND PRACTICES WITHIN THE PUBLIC SPHERE
• DEBATE COULD BE FRAMED IN MANY DIFFERENT WAYS – AS CONSERVATIVE (LOST VALUES);
PROGRESSIVE (EQUALITY); PRAGMATIC – IN TERMS OF NATIONAL INTEREST OR INT’L PEACE
IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA,
C. 1860
• COASTAL COLONIES AND ONLY VAGUE CLAIMS TO
THE INTERIOR
• RELATIONSHIPS OF CLIENTAGE AND BRIBERY WITH
LOCAL TRIBAL LEADERS
• IMPACT OF MISSIONARIES AS VANGUARD OF
EUROPEAN INFLUENCE
• PRACTICAL TOLERATION OF SLAVE TRADE AND
INTERACTIONS WITH REGIONAL TRADE NETWORKS
• RECOGNITION (ESP. BY BRITISH) OF THE COST OF
MAINTAINING COLONIES
• DESIRE FOR REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SHARING
OF COSTS
• DESIRE FOR MINIMAL MILITARY COMMITMENT
THE CHANGING NATURE OF EUROPEAN
COLONIALISM IN AFRICA
• THE INTRUSION OF NEW IMPERIALS ACTORS: GERMANY, ITALY, BELGIUM
• KING LEOPOLD, THE INTERNATIONAL AFRICAN ASSOCIATION(1876), AND THE CONGO
• ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY ENABLE GREATER INTEGRATION AND EXPLOITATION: RAILROADS,
STEAMSHIPS, TELEGRAPHS, AND MINING TECHNOLOGY
• THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE “MINERAL REVOLUTION” AND EVOLVING GLOBAL DEMAND:
GOLD, IVORY, DIAMONDS, AND RUBBER FUEL ECONOMIC SPECULATION AND DRIVE FOR
EXPLOITATION
• GLOBAL CREDIT ECONOMIES, INTERNATIONAL MARKETS, AND THE NEED TO SECURE
ECONOMIC STABILITY
THE TRAGEDY OF KING
LEOPOLD II AND THE CONGO
• 1876: HIRED HENRY STANLEY TO UNDERTAKE
AN
EXPLORATION OF THE CONGO RIVER VALLEY
• GAINED SUPPORT FOR HIS CONTROL OF THE REGION BY
BACK-ROOM DEALS WITH OTHER NATIONS AND THE
PUBLIC FACE OF PHILANTHROPIC INTEREST
• AFTER 1879, INT’L ASSOC, FOR THE CONGO SERVED AS
LEOPOLD’S FRONT
• LEOPOLD’S CONTROL RECOGNIZED IN 1884 – AFTER
THIS, BASED ECONOMY AROUND IVORY AND RUBBER,
USING FORCED LABOR AND BRUTAL PUNISHMENTS TO
KEEP UP PRODUCTION
• GOVERNED THROUGH A COMBO OF CONCESSIONS,
MONOPOLIES, AND LEOPOLD’S PRIVATE LAND
• ESTIMATES ARE DIFFICULT, BUT THE DEATH TOLL FROM
LEOPOLD’S REIGN WAS BETWEEN 6-13 MILLION
THE BERLIN
CONFERENCE,
1884
THE FALLOUT FROM BERLIN:
THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
• THE END OF THE AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE
• THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONGO FREE STATE
UNDER BELGIAN RULE
• THE PRINCIPLE OF ECONOMIC OPEN ACCESS
• THE CONGO STATE
• THE CONGO AND NIGER RIVER
• ENSHRINING THE “PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVITY”
• CREATING SPHERES OF INFLUENCE WITHOUT
REGARD FOR CULTURAL/LINGUISTIC BOUNDARIES
• BY 1914: 90% OF AFRICA UNDER
EUROPEAN CONTROL
DIRECT
A FIRST CASE STUDY: EGYPT, 1805-1914
• 1805: UNDER MUHAMMAD ALI (D. 1848), EFFECTIVELY
• ALI UNDERTAKES
BREAKS FROM OTTOMAN EMPIRE
PROGRAM OF MODERNIZATION: MILITARY AND ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM;
INCREASING TIES TO
EUROPE (COTTON!); INDUSTRIALIZATION AND EXPANSION TO GAIN CAPTIVE
MARKETS; WESTERNIZED EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION
• 1863: EGYPTIAN RULERS
GRANTED TITLE OF KHEDIVE
– PRACTICAL INDEPENDENCE
AND
ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCAL DYNASTY
• CAPITULATIONS AND CONCESSIONS: LEGAL PROTECTION AND ECONOMIC MONOPOLIES FUEL
EUROPEAN INTEREST  80,000 EUROPEANS IN EGYPT BY 1872
• ALI’S SUCCESSORS
CONTINUE THIS STRATEGY OF MODERNIZATION:
• CREATION OF EUROPEANIZED ELITE THROUGH EDUCATION AND LEGAL TRANSFORMATION
• KEY TECHNOLOGIES: STEAMSHIP, RAILWAY (1852), AND THE SUEZ CANAL (1869)
THE SUEZ DISASTER
• BUILT DURING A BOOM FOR EGYPTIAN
ECONOMY DUE TO US CIVIL WAR
• 44% OF CANAL OWNED BY EGYPTIAN
KHEDIVE
• CONSTRUCTED WITH FORCED LABOR BY
EGYPTIAN PEOPLE – 30K AT A GIVEN TIME
• OPENING CELEBRATED
IN GRAND STYLE:
COMPOSITION OF AIDA FOR THE EVENT
• PROBLEMS: COST 2X ESTIMATES, LIMITED
TRAFFIC IN FIRST SEVERAL YEARS
• KHEDIVE SELLS HIS SHARE TO BRITISH FOR ₤4
MILLION IN 1875
In 1854, the Frenchman Ferdinand de Lesseps gained a
concession from the Egyptian ruler to construct a canal
across the Suez Isthmus. De Lesseps created a stock
company to finance construction, and the canal was
completed in 1869.
THE GRADUAL LOSS OF AUTONOMY
• 1876: FAILURE TO MEET INTEREST PAYMENS TO EUROPEAN CREDITORS
• ESTABLISHMENT OF PUBLIC DEBT COMMISSION
• 1879: EUROPEAN PRESSURE LEADS TO DEPOSITION OF KHEDIVE
• 1880: AUSTERITY
MEASURES LEAD TO RISE OF COL.
URABI
• FORMATION OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
• ELIMINATE FOREIGN CONTROL OF ECONOMY
• 1882: RIOTS IN ALEXANDRIA CAUSE BRITISH TO SHELL THE CITY AND LAND EXPEDITIONARY
FORCE
• SEPTEMBER: DEFEAT URABI’S FORCES IN BATTLE AND ESTABLISH REGIME IN THE COUNTRY
THE PARADOXES OF BRITISH EGYPT
• ADMINISTERED BY EVELYN BARING, LORD CROMER, WHO WAS
ENTIRELY ORIENTALIST
• SOUGHT TO IMPROVE EGYPT THROUGH CONTACT WITH BRITAIN, BUT
RESTRICTED EDUCATION
• IMPROVED RURAL LIVING CONDITIONS AND ELIMINATED DEBT
• BUT PREFERRED BRITISH OFFICERS/ADMINISTRATORS AND LIMITED
DEVELOPMENT OF EGYPTIAN LEADERSHIP
• MODERNIZED ECONOMY THROUGH AG PRODUCTION AND
TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENT: ASWAN DAM, 1902
• BUT STOPPED INDUSTRIALIZATION TO COMPETE WITH BRITAIN
• TOOK HARSH MEASURES IN INSTANCES OF INSTABILITY OR POSSIBLE
INSURRECTION: DINSHAWAY, 1906
• BUT ALLOWED DISSIDENT PRESS AND FORMATION OF POLITICAL
PARTIES AFTER 1907
AND WHAT ABOUT
SOUTHERN AFRICA?
• MAIN BRITISH STRATEGY: LIMIT INTENSIVE
ENGAGEMENT WITH TERRITORY, AND STEER
TOWARDS SELF-RULE
• THE FORMATION OF BOER REPUBLICS
• TRANSVAAL, 1852
• ORANGE FREE STATE, 1854
• CONTINUED CONFLICT WITH NATIVE POPULATIONS
• THE XHOSA CATTLE-KILLING OF 1857
• THE MINERAL REVOLUTION: DIAMONDS (1867)
AND GOLD (1886)
• THE POLITICS OF PROTECTORATES
• BASUTOLAND, 1869
NEW CHALLENGES IN S. AFRICA
• THE QUEST OR “FEDERATION” AND THE REMOVAL OF
OBSTACLES
• THE INVASION OF ZULULAND (1879) AND THE SHOCK OF
ISANDHLWARA
• THE ANNEXATION OF THE TRANSVAAL (1877) AND THE FIRST
BOER WAR (1880-81)
• NEW GERMAN CLAIMS TO THE WEST COAST AND BORDER
DEBATES WITH LEOPOLD
• INTERNAL POLITICS AND THE QUESTION OF COST-BENEFIT
ANALYSIS
• A NATION “DRUNK ON IMPERIALISM”
• HOW TO MANAGE S. AFRICA?
• RAILWAYS AND TELEGRAPHS
• UNIFIED CUSTOMS
• FURTHER EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION
CECIL RHODES: AFRICAN
COLOSSUS
• GOT RICH IN DIAMONDS: CHAIR OF DE BEERS IN 1888
• 1889: STARTED
BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY TO
DEVELOP EMPIRE IN CENTRAL AFRICA
• BY 1895 HAD ESTABLISHED RHODESIA
• 1890: BECAME PRIME MINISTER OF CAPE COLONY
• RESIGNED IN 1895 AFTER JAMESON RAID AGAINST
TRANSVAAL
• RHODES VISION OF EMPIRE
• FROM THE CAPE TO CAIRO
• LAISSEZ-FAIRE RULE FROM THE IMPERIAL CENTER
• ENTREPRENEURIAL IMPERIALISM – LET THOSE ON THE GROUND
DETERMINE POLICY
• BRITISH RULE COULD BROOK NO RIVALS, EITHER EUROPEAN OR
AFRICAL