Western Studies
on the
Prophet
Muhammad
2013
1
2
001 Coursework Essay 50%
28/11/2013
Explore debates about ‘faith sensitive’ and
a ‘critical approach’ in relation to
academic studies on the Prophet
Muhammad (pbuh). (2,500 words)
3
The Study of Islam by Western
scholars
 Need
to see as part of western encounter with
the Islamic world
 Crusades
 Threat to Christendom in 16th century
 Eastern Question
 Iranian Revolution
 Israel/ Rushdie/ 9/11& 7/7
4
Christendom
Islamic world
5
European
“By the eleventh century, when Western writers were finally
beginning to form a notion of what it meant to be European,
they found themselves confronted by a powerful and
threatening Islam, which they by and large were neither able
nor willing to understand. To be sure, there were other
important elements that went into the construction of the
Western identity: Europe was also the product of internal
colonization and cultural assimilation. Yet the encounter
with the Muslim “other” was elemental to the shaping of the
Western world view. This was especially true during those
centuries that began with the crusades and ended with the
dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.” ( Banks, 1999, 2)
6
Muslim = the Other
“Thus the Western need to construct an image of the Muslim, of the
“other” was as twofold process that came to dominate the premodern
discourse concerning Islam. On the one hand, it created an image of
the Saracen, Moor, or Turk that was wholly alien and wholly evil... on
the other hand, the creation of such a blatantly false stereotype enable
Western Christians to define themselves. Indeed, the Muslim became,
in a sense, a photographic negative of the self-perception of an ideal
Christian self-image, one that portrayed Europeans as brave, virtuous
believers in the one true God and the one true faith.” (Banks, 1999,3)
Banks, D. & Frassetto, M (eds.) (1999) Western views of Islam in
Medieval and Early Modern Europe: perception of the Other. New York: St.
Martin’s Press.
7
Religious Studies
 Religious
Studies ‘multidisciplinary and
polymethodological’
 1873 Professor of Comparative Theology /
Philosophy of Religion
 Check
out the Series preface, as well as the
Introduction: Studying Islam- identifying critical
issues
Bennett, C. (2010) Studying Islam: the critical issues.
London: Continuum.
8
Islam in the Western Academy

-
•
Studied originally within Christian apologetic from 16th c.
Polemical picture of Islam, with negative focus on
Muhammad (Polemic= aim to prove the truth of one thing
against the proved falsity of an opposing belief)
Influenced by assumptions of superiority of Western culture
“The need to justify the colonial and imperial projects, the idea
that the European had the moral right to dominate the Muslim
world produced a self-serving picture of Islam… To some
degree, how Islam is taught in the Western academy still follows
Western modes and approaches, despite the general bias
toward insider sensitivity.” (Bennett, 2010, 3)
Sir William Muir
9
Sir Hamilton Gibb
Professor John Esposito
Life of Mahomet 1858
Mohammadenism
1949
Islam: The Straight
Path in 1988.
Aim to support
evangelism amongst
Muslims.
Comparative
approach negative
view of Muhammad
and Qur’an.
Three evils: polygamy,
divorce and slavery.
Islam keeps Muslims in
‘backward…and
barbarous state.’
Preferred to be seen
as an Orientalist than
an Arabist.
Seems to accept
European superiority,
but not explicit in
Christian beliefs. Does
support us/ them in
Muslim mind/
European mind.
Tendency to attempt
to explain
developments in
relation to
environment and
influences.
Aims ‘to understand
and appreciate what
Muslims believe and
practice’ (1988,xi).
Accepts one Islam but
presents many
interpretations, thus
avoiding monolithic
and representing
dynamism.
Whilst closer to insider
view is still in
‘traditional outsider
format.’
10
Comparison of Esposito and Muslim authors
Esposito, J.
Nasr, S. H. (2001)
(1988) Islam: The Ideals and
Straight Path.
Realities of
Islam.
Mawdudi,, S.
(1960) Towards
Understanding
Islam.
Rahman, F.
1966) Islam.
Muhammad and
the Qur’an
Islam the last
religion and the
primordial religion.
Its universal and
particular traits.
The Meaning of
Islam.
Muhammad
Modern
interpretations of
Islam
Shari’ah- Divine
Law- Social and
Human Norm
Din and Shariah
Shari’a
Analysis: “Esposito begins with Muhammad and the Qur’an. Of the
Muslim writers, two commence with concepts. One, like Esposito, starts
with Muhammad but separates Prophet and scripture…
All three Muslims discuss Islamic Law (Shariah) in one or more chapters.
Esposito does not have a separate chapter on the Shariah.” (Bennett,
2010, 21)
11
Critical issues and how to deal
with them
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Seminal personality and scripture
Community dimension and social involvement
Conceptual framework and ethics
Rituals and spirituality
Aesthetics/ Material Dimension
Issue of insider-ship / critical discussion
12
Nature of Religious Studies
 Key
developments
- Phenomenology
- Empathy
 Key sources:
Chryssides, G. D. & Geaves, R. (2007) The Study of Religion.
London: Continuum.
Corrywright, D. & Morgan, P. (2006) Get set for Religious
Studies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
13
Smart and Worldview Analysis
Ninian Smart 1967 Department of Religious Studies, Lancaster
University
1. Plural- dealing with many religions and worldviews
2. Open-ended- explores beliefs and symbols that go beyond
traditional religions
3. Treats worldviews both historically and systematically to enter
worldview
4. Makes thematic comparisons to understand traditions
5. Polymethodic- uses range of disciplines
6. Aims to show power of ideas and practices in interaction
7. Sets scene for educated understanding of world and personal
quest
“…structured empathy. It is the way we cross our own horizons
into the world of other people.” (Smart, N. (1995) Worldviews.
Harlow: Pearson. )
14
Studying Islam: contemporary intellectual
landscape of Islamic studies
Traditionalists
Muslim
Radicals
Modernists
Traditional
Orientalists
Non-Muslim
New
scholars
Media
generalists
Ahmed, A. S. (1992) Postmodernism and Islam. London:
Routledge.
15
Muslim Scholars
Traditionalists
Focus on larger message of Islam, not sectarian
Fazlur Rahman, Hossein Nasr, Ali Ashraf
•
Radicals
Have different style and strategy, angry at West
Ziauddin Sardar,
•
Modernists (Right and left)
Salman Rushdie
•
16
Summary of Muslim scholars
1. Traditionalists dominate Muslim curriculum
2. Prominent role of South Asians
3. Issue of class, age, success and immigrant
status
Traditionalists: older, established, secure
4. Institutional link- everyone is associated with
some tendency
5. The Satanic Verses: meeting point
17
Non- Muslim
 Orientalists
Positive aspects/ cultural schizophrenia
 New
Scholars
Allow the native voice- Esposito
 Media
Generalists
‘rag-bag of journalists, novelists and media
persons’ (1986) e.g. Robert Kilroy-Silk
18
Islam and the West
Montgomery Watt would appear to confirm Said’s view
of Orientalism when he wrote in 1988 that:
“For Muslims unchangingness is both an ideal for human
individuals and societies, and also a perception of the
actual nature of humanity and its environment.
Unchangingness is an all-pervading assumption which
colour most aspects of the standard world-view... It is
thus very difficult for the Westerner to appreciate the
outlook of those in whose thinking there is no place for
development, progress, or social advance and
improvement.” (Watt, 1988)
Geaves, R. (2010) Islam Today. London: Continuum.
Orientalism
19
Geaves, R. (2006) Key Words in Religious Studies. London: Continuum.
“ A term coined by Edward Said (1935- 2003) to refer to a way of
coming to terms with the Orient, based on the special role
assigned to the East by the West which creates a style of thought
in which clear ontological distinctions are made between the
categories of East and West, with the East perceived as ‘other’. In
the context of a colonial relationship, this structuring of the East
takes place within a power discourse in which understandings of
the East are imposed by the West. Anyone from the West who
studies Eastern religion and culture is by definition an orientalist”
(Geaves, 2006. 70).
See Google images under ‘orientalism.’
20
Occidentalism
“A reaction to orientalism in which African and Asian
scholars reject most Western scholarship as formed within
the power relations of colonialism and revolt against the
global civilization dominated by the West. This negative
discourse against the West and Western scholarship can be
as misinformed as the orientalism that it rebelled against. A
central discourse of occidentalism considers the category of
religion itself to be a Western construct” (Geaves, 2006,
69).
21
Orientalism
Williams, B. (1973) Islam in History. London: Alcove Press.
 1779
term used in England for special discipline
devoted to the study of the East
 Theory of civilisations- essence/ sphere
- methods included history of religions
- Historical and comparative linguistics
 Imperialism- superiority of Europe
 Colonialism- European self-centredness
22
Clash of civilizations
“In such a scenario
Muslims would typically
regard the West as a
moral desert in which
citizens have moved
away from the Godgiven
laws
of
Christianity
to
postEnlightenment
manmade legal systems
which replaced divine
revelation with humancentred secularism.”
““From the other side... there
have been a number of
academics and journalists who
have posited the idea of a
clash of civilizations in which
Islam is perceived as the
barbarous ‘other’, outdated
and outmoded in the face of
democratic liberal values that
are implicitly heralded as the
pinnacle of human social,
moral
and
political
achievement.”
In reality, the positions taken from both sides are far more
nuanced.” (Geaves, 2010. 126)
23
Summary of Said’s view of Orientalism
Sarder, Z. (1999) Orientalism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
tradition of studying a region by its languages and writings
coming to terms with the orient based on experience.
based on an ontological and epistemological distinction
made between the ‘Orient’ and the ‘Occident.’
a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having
authority over the Orient.’ (1995, 3)
family of ideas and unifying set of values ...explains
behaviour by providing a mentality, genealogy,
atmosphere;
‘system of representations
The western ‘corporate institution’ - describing it,
containing it, controlling it, teaching and learning about it,
24
Orientalists
Ahmed, A. (1992) Postmodernism and Islam. London: Routledge.
 Knowledge
stemming from colonial dominance
and cultural antipathy
 Positive features: lifetime scholarship/
languages/ vision and breadth of learning
 Said presents ‘Orientalists’ as enemies of
Islam
 Does that include Gibb, Lewis, Arberry, Watt?
25
New understanding Orientalism
“Of equal concern is the impact of Edward Said and the
shadow he has placed over European scholarly constructions
of the Orient in the colonial period, the publication of Said’s
Orientalism in 1978 dramatically transformed the landscape in
which scholars study Islam. Whereas ‘Orientalism’ was
previously a value-neutral term connoting the study of Eastern
cultures and religion, it is now deemed to be part of a larger
European project to colonize the East through the creation of
an imagined reality reinvented through the intellectual gaze of
the colonizers” (Geaves, 2010, 135).
26
“To study Islam as a Western scholar since the latter half of the
twentieth century is to a figure of suspicion amongst Muslims,
and the accusation of ‘Orientalist’ is not one to be taken lightly.
There is not doubt that some nineteenth century scholars were
deeply complicit in the colonial venture or seeking to advantage
the truths of Christianity over its religious rivals. Yet this is not
the complete picture. It could be argued that the fascination
with the East and its religions arouse out of the mixture of a
Romantic sentiment and the pursuit of knowledge that arose
from the values of the Enlightenment.” (Geaves, 2010, 134-5)
27
28
Bennett: critical issues:
Seminal personality and
scripture,
•
•
•
•
the relationship between Muhammad and the Qur’an remains
critical.
Issues related to the collection and preservation of the Qur’an,
the relationship between “revelation” and context, text and
context, the debate about the textuality of the Qur’an
are non-religious explanations that might credit Muhammad as
Islam’s founder to be banished from discussion because they are
predicated on secular scholarship, proposed by sociological or
political theorists?
Muhammad as the point of departure for discussing Islam
Bennett, C. (2010) Studying Islam: the critical issues. London:
Continuum. (pp, 22-24)
29
Bennett: critical issues:
“Seminal personality and
scripture,
closely linked in Islam, the relationship between Muhammad and the
Qur’an remains critical. Issues related to the collection and preservation
of the Qur’an, the relationship between “revelation” and context, text and
context, the debate about the textuality of the Qur’an, which were covered
by Muir regardless of the polemical style of his treatment and by Gibb,
invite exploration. Esposito contains no reference to the large body of
critical literature on this subject or even to the work of some Muslims who
do not fully endorse the classical version. In the academy, are nonreligious explanations that might credit Muhammad as Islam’s founder to
be banished from discussion because they are predicated on secular
scholarship, proposed by sociological or political theorists? All three,
including Esposito, take Muhammad as the point of departure for
discussing Islam; only one of the three Muslims writers did not. The others
start with “concepts.”
30
Gabrieli, F. (1977) Muhammad and Conquests
of Islam. London: World University Library.
in history- although ‘he stands in
the full light of history, is as difficult to grasp
and evaluate in historical reality as are those
two other great founders, Buddha and
Jesus’(Gabrieli, 1977, 7).
 Tradition of exaltation
 Tradition of denigration
 More objective modern views
 Muhammad
31
Tradition of Exaltation
Human but venerated
 Supernatural events, qualities and capacities –
‘isma = immunity from error
 metaphysical and mystical primordial being
“So the memory of the historical person of the
Meccan merchant, and of the able and realistic
head of state of Medina, is lost on the one hand in
the speculations of a mysticism wholly foreign and
unknown to him, while on the other hand it
materialises in the most naive beliefs of popular
piety”(Gabrieli, 1977,11).

32
Tradition of denigration
Judgment of medieval
Christianity
 Heretic,
sexually immoral, epileptic
 Blasphemer – denied divinity of Christ
 Muhammad for the Latin Middle Ages = “a
false Prophet of the lusts of the flesh,
preacher of a vile heresy, and render of the
seamless garment of the universal
Church”(Gabrieli, 1977,15).
33
Modern Historical View
18th century interest develops
 19th century dominated by reductionist accounts
 Twentieth century more scientific
Buhl – genuine nature of prophetic inspiration
Watt – methodological revaluation of tradition
‘shows how far the West has come from the hatred of the
Middle Ages, towards a more just and sympathetic
appreciation of the Prophet of Islam”(Gabrieli, 1977,
21).
 From
34
Watt,W.M. ‘Muhammad’ in Holt, P.M. (1977) The
Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.





‘For the occidental reader there are grave
difficulties in attaining a balanced understanding
of the historical role of Muhammad.
Expectation concerning the nature of a religious
leader
May not be free from inherited prejudices
Historical problems in the study of remote periodsfact and legend
Difficult to date or interpret historical material in
the Qur’an
35
The Study of Muhammad:
a survey of approaches
‘…multitude of views and plethora or works but also
from the variety of methodologies applied in studying
the Prophet… Incorporating different presuppositions,
employing different principles of data selection, and
directed towards different objectives, these various
approaches inevitably result in different conclusions’
(Royster, 1972, 49).
Royster, J.E. (1972) The Study of Muhammad: a survey of
approaches from the perspective of the history and
phenomenology of religion. The Muslim World, 62:1, pp. 4970. Chichester: Wiley.
36
Methodologies used by Western
writers
non-empirical (or normative)= non-observable
 empirical (or descriptive) = observable
Western orientalists- four types of reductionist methodology: cause
and effect relationship between Muhammad and his natural
environment
 “The common thrust of these four approaches lies in their
endeavor to explain the person and work of Muhammad in terms
of factors outside the realm of religion per se. When these
approaches, as they so often do regard the enigma of
Muhammad as solved through their explanations, they fail to take
the complexity of religious phenomena with sufficient
seriousness and are to be faulted as responsible guides in the
understanding of things religious’ (Royster, 1972, 58).

37
Types of reductionist
methodology
 naturalistic
reductionism- explanations of
miracles
 psychological reductionism= revelation as
hallucinations
 cultural reductionism- role in context of
day= social reformer
 exordial reductionism- Jewish/ Christian
influences
38
Phenomenology
‘The phenomenological approach is the sine qua non for
understanding the commitment and convictions of believers in
another religious tradition’ (Royster, 1972, 64).
‘This survey of various approaches to the study of Muhammad has
attempted to show that a scholar’s presuppositions influence his
objectives and that his objectives in turn set the course for his
methodology…only the phenomenological approach enables one to
attribute ultimacy to the religious dimensions of Islam and,
consequently, come to an understanding of the tradition from the
perspective of Muslims themselves’ (Royster, 1972, 70).
39
Standard version of the
Prophet’s life (Rippin, 1990)








570
610
622
624
625
627
629
630
632
Birth in the year of the elephant
Revelations begin
Hijra - move to Yathrib
Battle of Badr
Battle of Uhud
Battle of the Ditch
Treaty of Hudaybiya
Return to Mecca
Death of Prophet

Who was Muhammad http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/who-wasmuhammad/314.html
40
Sharifi, H. (1) Biographies vary in
quality and understanding:
-
Knowledge of original Arabic sources
Different socio-cultural backgrounds
Depth of knowledge of Islam and the life of the prophet
Ability to respond to the metaphysical and theological
aspects of Islam
Motives when dealing with the phenomenon of ‘prophet
Sharifi, H. (1986) ‘A Muslim Assessment of Books on the Life of the
Prophet Muhammad’ in A. Ashraf (ed.) Resources for the teaching of
Islam in British Schools, pp. 25-43. Cambridge: The Islamic Academy.
41
Sharifi, 1986, Problems
 Lack
of objectivity
 Claim of Jewish, Christian and pagan impact
 Subjective reconstruction of historical events
 Distortion of facts
 Misunderstanding the phenomenon of
prophecy (inc. motives of author)
 Reductionist attitudes
42
1. Lack of objectivity


“The orientalists who came first to deal with Islam
and the Prophet doubted the reliability of the
traditional sources with the excuse that the piety
of an earlier time was mostly responsible for
producing them”(Sharifi, 1986, 29).
“In Watt’s book on the life of the Prophet it is
difficult to find any description of the Prophet or an
event which, despite being based on traditional
accounts, is not twisted or mingled with personal
comments and interpretations beginning with
words such as “perhaps” or ‘it is probable,’
etc”(Sharifi, 1986, 30).
43
Objectivity – expectation
“What we ask from Western scholars like Andrae
and Watt is to give evidence for such personal
and subjective interpretations and the twisting of
facts if they claim any objectivity in the context of
a western scientific approach. Secondly, if they
are reluctant to rely on traditional accounts in
describing a case like the above, is it objective
to rely on their own personal views as a base for
an historical description?”(Sharifi, 1986, 31).
44
The first revelation
Lings Muhammad
Watt Muhammad at Mecca
“… and he would go for
spiritual retreats to a cave in
Mount Hira, not far from the
outskirts of Mecca. There was
nothing strange in this that
would have struck quraysh as
particularly strange, for retreat
had been a traditional practice
among the descendants of
Ishmael…” (Lings, 1983, 43)
“There is no improbability in
Muhammad’s going to Hira,
a hill a little way from
Mecca… Judeo-Christian
influence, such as the
example of monks, or a little
personal experiences,
would show the need and
desirability of solitude”
(Watt, 44).
45
2. Phenomenon of Prophet
“None of the writers of this group has
understood the Prophet of Islam properly.
Even when praising him, they do it out of their
purely human perspective considering his
administrative talent or his statesmanship. A
Prophet is himself the norm, and if one wants
to understand a prophet one is in need of a
metaphysical knowledge and a profound
religious insight”(Sharifi, 1986, 38).
46
3. Motives of the author
‘most importantly, in their different motives when
dealing with the rare phenomenon of a
“Prophet”. Basically, it is this last point which
determines the approach of the author, gives
him direction and colours the conclusions the
author would like his readers to draw from the
biography’ (Sharifi, 1986, 25).
47
Sharifi: Criteria for assessment
1. Nature of objectivity in dealing with:
i.
the historical nature of the Prophet’s life
ii.
The Prophet’s function
2. Quality of discernment- must understand
what prophethood means and accept this
dimension
3. Awareness of the main aim of Religious
Education - phenomenology
48
Sharifi’s thesis:
Questions and responses
 How
far do the criticisms represent criticisms
of the Western approach to the study of
religion rather than weakness in biographies?
 Consider each of the problems in your
response to this question
49
Sharifi on Watt
‘In Watt’s book on the life of the Prophet it is
difficult to find a description of any deed of the
Prophet or an event which, despite being
based on traditional accounts, is not twisted
or mingled with personal comments and
interpretations beginning with words such as
“perhaps” or “it is probable,” etc.’ (Sharifi,
1986, 30).
50
Royster’s assessment of Watt
“Although an implicit phenomenological attitude
characterizes much of Watt’s work, his over-all
approach to the study of Muhammad and Islam may
be termed multi-methodological’ (Royster, 1972, 64).
- interest in sociology means he has a tendency to
make ‘functional interpretations’
…the desire for social consequences was at the
bottom of the acceptance of Islam by the people of
Medina’ (Watt, 1961, 18 in (Royster, 1972, 65).
51
Assessment of Watt
“Montgomery Watt, the author of a landmark biographical
study of the Prophet, concluded that Christians in
dialogue with Muslims “should reject the distortions of the
medieval image of Islam and should develop a positive
appreciation of its values, this involves accepting
Muhammad as a religious leader through whom God has
worked, and that is tantamount to holding that he is in
some sense a prophet” (Watt, 1991, 148 in Tolan, P.2478).
52
Rodinson, M. ‘A Critical Survey of Modern Studies on
Muhammad’ in Swartz,M.L. (1981) Studies on Islam.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Comments on Watt’s works: methodologically
important
- ‘He has taken the sources seriously, analyzed
them, and formulated his conclusions with great
sharpness and clarity. Taking as his point of
departure the great Muslim biographies… The
clear and direct way in which he formulates his
conclusions on the various events of the Prophet’s
life, the confident fashion in which he employs his
conclusions, has appeared to some to indicate an
exaggerated confidence in the reliability of these
latter.”(Rodinson, 1981, 46)

53
Rodinson, M. ‘A Critical Survey of Modern Studies
on Muhammad’(1981) : his own biography
 “Attempted
to show the relationship between
the eschatological visions of the early
preaching of Muhammad and the international
political situation of that period. Taking the
sociological correlations of his preaching as
established, the author attempted to show
how a personal, psychological evolution
shaped Muhammad into an instrument
capable of formulating and communicating an
ideology that corresponded to the needs of
the time and milieu”(Rodinson, 1981, 50).
54
Khan, A. ‘Muhammad as object and
subject’ in Studies in Religion, 1978.
 Tendency
of West to focus on Muhammad as
the founder and prophet (birth- occupationqualities- mission- man of God)
 “This simple and basic account… is at best a
sketch of Muhammad seen from outside
Islam, and can hardly be accepted as a
complete or true picture of Muhammad as
understood within Islam… These pictures…
blur Muhammad’s full significance … even
though they are based on historical
certainty”(Khan, 1978, 373).
55
Khan: Object - subject
 Need
to move beyond ’Muhammad’ as an
‘object in history’ to see as a ‘subject for
belief’
 This way of seeing Muhammad escapes
notice ‘because traditional Islamic thought
…and the Shari’ah… have not been eager to
promote the idea of Muhammad as a subject
for belief” (Khan, 1978, 373).
56
Khan: Muhammad
 as
the model of moral perfection: “Exemplar
characterizing the human form that is
perfectly oriented towards the divine essence.
 “blessing for all people: universal mission to
transform all to ‘self at peace
 ‘the archetypal man: the spiritual Muhammad
in perfect harmony with the Divine, symbol of
the Islamic vision of human life” (Khan, 1978,
373).
57
Rippin, A. (1990) Muslims, Volume 1. The
Formative Period. London: Routledge.

-
‘The biography of Muhammad has served a
number of important functions in Islam, each of
which has coloured it in crucial ways.
the framework for the revelation of the Qur’an
As a source for the sunna of Muhammad
‘the summary of the life of Muhammad as presented
here is fraught with difficulties and insoluble
problems”
(Rippin, 1990, 34).
58
Rippin: The mythic dimensions of
Muhammad’s biography
 “The
overall effect is to create a picture of
both Muhammad and the Muslim community
in its ‘pristine’ form; this means that the
picture which emerges, and the impulse
behind its composition, is a normative onethis is a picture of how the Muslim community
should be, projected back into the times of its
founder who has been described in mythic
terms”(Rippin, 1990, 35).
59
Rippin: Problem of non-Muslim
critical studies
“It has often been commented that while
Muslims may think those who deny the
existence of God or who utter blasphemies
about Him are misguided, such discussions will
not offend in the same manner in which
discussions over Muhammad will. Those who
insinuate evil of Muhammad or who cast
aspersions on him are considered to be insulting
Islam”(Rippin, 1990, 40).
60
Rippin goes on to add
‘But further thought reveals that ‘attacking’
Muhammad is, of course, attacking the way of
life of individual Muslims, for their way of life is
understood to rest on the example of the founder
of their religion. If something is felt by Muslims to
be a denigration of one aspect of the life of
Muhammad then by implication such may be
seen as an attack on the whole way of life of
each and every Muslim, at least in its idealized
conception’(Rippin, 1990, 40).
61
In ‘quest of the historical
Muhammad’: history or exegesis?
“if the skeptics are right, the story of Muhammad’s life…
cannot confidently be read as history. The tradition
literature may have grown out of late seventh and early
eighth-century political and theological squabbles, as
Goldziher argued, or of early legal debates, as Schacht
suggests, or simply out of the need to interpret the Qur’an,
as Burton suggests, but it cannot be confidently traced to
any real events of the Prophet’s lifetime” (Brown, 2009, 96).
62
Brown: The Sira and the Shaping
of an Islamic Worldview
1. Muhammad’s biography developed to help understanding
of Qur’an
2. To ‘establish Muhammad’s prophetic credentials’uniqueness and purity “The point to be emphasized here is
that the hadith and sira literature grew up in an environment
of powerful stereotypes about what a holy man or prophet
should be like, and these stereotypes had a strong shaping
effect on the biography of Muhammad” (Brown, 2009, 98).
3. Preoccupation with the articulation and legitimation of
Islamic norms of behavior.
Brown, D. (2009) A New Introduction to Islam. Oxford: WileyBlackwell.
63
Follow-up
Forward, M. (1997) Muhammad: a short biography.
Oxford: Oneworld.
Ch. 5. Muhammad in recent debate
- Muhammad and radical Western Scholars
- Muhammad and the Orientalists
- Muhammad and Christians
- Muhammad and the Unbelievers
- History and Myth
- Muhammad in Muslim Estimation
64
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