The Development of
Orthodox Christianity
and the New Testament
By Ed Hensley
My Background
• Southern Baptist
• Texas
• Fundamentalist Churches
• Moderate Family
• Not fluent in Hebrew, Greek, or Latin
• Not a scholar
• Send corrections to EdwinHensley@gmail.com
Outline of this Study
• Early Versions of Christianity
• Development of Orthodox Christianity
• Development of Christian Canons
• Editing the Books of the Canons
• Books No Longer in the Canon(s)
• Selecting Books for the Canons – This lesson
• Development of Anti-Judaism in Christianity
• Non-Canonical Books and Myths referenced in the NT
• Important Contradictions in the NT and OT
Selecting Books
For the Canons
Overview of the
Development of the
Hebrew Bible
or Old Testament
Brief History Judaism up to 70 CE
• Ancient Hebrews evolved from the ancient Canaanite Religion.
El Elyon was the most high god of many gods.
• Ancient Hebrews became monolithic. They believed in many
gods, but Hebrews should only worship their god named
Yahweh.
• Ancient Hebrews evolved into monotheism around 6th century
BCE, believing Yahweh was the only god.
• Jews lived under the subjugation of many foreign rules,
including Babylonians in the 6th Century. Scholars believe
that most of the Hebrew Bible was compiled
under Babylonian exile. Persians, Greeks, and Romans
also ruled Judea.
• Jews rebelled against Rome in 66 – 73 CE. The Jerusalem
Second Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Masada fell in 73 CE.
Septuagint
• Septuagint – Greek Translation by legendary 70 Jewish
Scholars in 3rd Century BCE. Abbreviated as LXX.
• Considered equal to the Masoretic text by Jews such as Philo
of Alexandria and Josephus.
• Jews started abandoning use of LXX in 2nd Century CE due in
part of association with Christianity. Started using Targum
Hebrew/Aramaic manuscripts compiled by the Masoretes
and other translations.
• Books in LXX but not in MT include Tobit, Judith, 1 Esdras, 1-4
Maccabees, Psalm 151, Prayer of Manasseh, Wisdom, Sirach,
Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, additions to Esther & Daniel
• Catholics and Eastern Orthodox claim the Septuagint as
authoritative.
Masoretic Text
• Authoritative for Jews today, also defining letter text and
pronunciation.
• Written in Hebrew.
• Copied, edited & distributed by Masoretes in 600 – 1000 CE.
• Oldest Masoretic manuscript is only 9th Century CE.
• 22 books correspond to 39 books in protestant OT.
• Protestants claim the Masoretic Text is authentic for
Christianity and use it for biblical translations.
Dead Sea Scrolls
• 972 texts discovered in Qumran in the West Bank 1946-56.
• Earliest known manuscripts of Hebrew Bible.
• Coins on site date from 135 BCE to 73 CE.
• Texts are from the Essenes Jewish group during the 2nd Temple
Period.
• 40% from Hebrew Bible, from every book except Esther.
• 30% from books not canonized in Hebrew Bible.
• 30% sectarian.
Dead Sea Scrolls
• Protestants claim the DSS support MT and prove the bible is accurate,
often focusing on one (Greater Isaiah) scroll (see
http://www.apologeticspress.org/apcontent.aspx?category=13&article=3
57)
• Catholics and Eastern Orthodox claim the DSS support LXX (see,
http://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2010/02/septuagint-vs-masoreticwhich-is-more.html,
• “In their astonishing range of textual variants, the Qumran biblical
discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once-accepted
theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three
manuscript families: of the Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the
Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is now becoming
increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture
was extremely fluid until its canonization around
A.D. 100.” – The Oxford Companion To Archaeology.
Hebrew Bible Evolution
• The Hebrew Bible has evolved over time. DSS = Dead Sea
Scrolls, LXX = Segtuagint, MT = Masoretic Text
Developing The
New Testament Canons
The Council of Nicea
Table of (many) Christian Canons
http://www.ntcanon.org/table.shtml
IG = Ignatius of Antioch (references in writings, 2nd century)
P = Polycarp of Smyrna (references in writings, 2nd century)
M = Marcion of Rome and the Marcionites (canon for his anti-Jewish sect, 2nd century)
V = Valentinus of Rome and the Valentinians (references in Gnostic writings, 2nd century)
JM = Justin Martyr of Ephesus/Rome (references in writings, 2nd century)
C = Clement of Alexandria (references in writings, 2nd century)
T = Tertullian of Carthage (references in writings, 2nd and 3rd century)
MC = Muratorian Canon (fragments of a 2nd century list of acceptable books)
O = Origen of Alexandria (references in writings, 3rd century)
E = Eusebius of Ceasarea (lists acceptable and not acceptable books, 3rd & 4th century)
CS = Codex Sinaiticus (4th century scripture, Mt. Sinai)
A = Athanasius of Alexandria (1st list of current NT, 367 CE)
D = Didymus the Blind of Alexandra (references in writings, 4th century)
P = Peshitta bible of Syrian Church (5th century)
V = Latin Vulgate, translated mostly by Jerome, 4th – 5th centuries
Table of (many) Christian Canons
Table of (many) Christian Canons
http://www.ntcanon.org/table.shtml
Table of (many) Christian Canons
http://www.ntcanon.org/table.shtml
Writers Who Referenced
New Testament Texts
Ignatius
• Ignatius (died 110 CE), bishop of Antioch in
Syria, is known mainly as the author of 7
letters that had exceptional influence in the
early church. He was apparently anxious to
counteract the teachings of two groups: the
Judaizers, who did not accept the authority of
the New Testament (although the NT did not
really exist at that time); and the Docetists,
who held that Christ's sufferings and death
were only apparent. The letters have often
been cited to determine what beliefs were
held in the early church.
• Ignatius does not quote Mark or John, and
other books.
Painting of Ignatius of
Antioch from the
Menologion of Basil II
(c. 1000 AD)
Polycarp
• Polycarp (70 – 155 CE), Greek bishop of
Smyrna (modern Izmir, Turkey) was the
leading 2nd-century figure in Roman Asia by
virtue of his intermediary position between
the apostolic and patristic ages and his work
during the initial appearance of the
fundamental theological literature of
Polycarp miraculously
extinguishing the fire
Christianity.
burning the city of
Smyrna
• His The Letter to the Philippians contains
quotations from many NT books and a few OT
books.
• He does NOT quote the gospel of John.
Iranaeus
• Iranaeus (130 – 200 CE), bishop of Lyons, wrote
Against Heresies around 180 CE to counter the
Marcionites and the Valentinians.
• First to claim 4 and only 4 gospels.
• The Gospels could not possibly be either more or
less in number than they are. Since there are four
zones of the world in which we live, and four
principal winds, while the Church is spread over all
the earth, and the pillar and foundation of the
Church is the gospel, and the Spirit of life, it
fittingly has four pillars, everywhere breathing out
incorruption and revivifying men.
An engraving of St
Irenaeus, Bishop of
Lugdunum in Gaul (now
Lyons, France)
Iranaeus
• From this it is clear that the Word, the artificer of all things,
being manifested to men gave us the gospel, fourfold in
form but held together by one Spirit. As David said, when
asking for his coming, 'O sitter upon the cherubim, show
yourself '. For the cherubim have four faces, and their faces
are images of the activity of the Son of God. For the first
living creature, it says, was like a lion, signifying his active
and princely and royal character; the second was like an ox,
showing his sacrificial and priestly order; the third had the
face of a man, indicating very clearly his coming in human
guise; and the fourth was like a flying eagle, making plain
the giving of the Spirit who broods over the Church. Now
the Gospels, in which Christ is enthroned, are like these.
(3.11.8)
Other References in Writings
• Justin Martyr (100-165 CE) – Pagan raised in Jewish
environment who converted to Christianity in 130 CE and wrote
3 apology books around 150 – 160 CE. Does not quote gospels
by name.
• Clement of Alexandria (150 – 211 CE) referenced most NT
books as well as many that did not make it into the NT.
• Tertullian of Carthage (155 – 220 CE) helped establish Latin as
an ecclesiastical language. Left orthodox church around 210 to
join Montanism, then left to form his own sect that existed
until 5th century in Africa.
• Origen of Caeserea (185 – 253 CE) was often attacked for
heretical beliefs, including Jesus inferior to God, and that Jesus
did not really suffer.
Other References in Writings
• Eusebius of Caesarae (260 – 340 CE) is called The Father Of
Church History. He used the libraries of Origen in Caesarea as
well those in Jerusalem to compile Ecclesiastical History.
Commissioned by Emperor Constantine to produce 50 bibles in
331 CE. These were produced, but none survive today. These
bibles probably had a huge influence on the canon.
• Didymus the Blind (313 – 398 CE) of Alexandria memorized
large volumes of scripture through secretaries reading to him.
He was held in great esteem by Athanasius, Jerome, and other
church leaders until his works were used to support Origen’s
anti-Nicene positions. Because of this, much of his work was
not copied in the middle ages and was lost.
Lists and Collections of
New Testament Texts
Marcion
• Marcion (85 – 160 CE) of
Sinope created the 1st Christian
NT Canon around 144 CE. He
was considered a heretic by the
proto-orthodox Christians.
• It contained a version of the gospel of
Luke and 10 of the 13 letters of Paul,
namely Romans, 1st & 2nd Corinthians,
Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians,
Colossians, 1st & 2nd Thessalonians, and
Philemon. It rejected the OT, Matthew,
and John.
Apostle John (left) and Marcion of
Sinope (right), from Morgan Library MS
748, 11th century
Marcion
• Marcionites were Gentiles who claimed Jewish practice was
harmful for a relationship with god.
• They believed in two gods, one Jewish and one Christian.
• They believed Jesus was completely divine and not human.
• They rejected the OT as a book inspired by the inferior god of
the Jews.
• They believe Paul to be the one true apostle of Christ.
• The creation of his cannon spurred the proto-orthodox
Christians to more firmly establish theology and literature.
• The formalization of Christian theology and canons is largely a
response to heretics.
Muratorian Canon (aka Fragment)
• The Muratorian Fragment is a 7th century Latin manuscript
bound in a 7th or 8th century codex from the library of
Columban’s Monastery at Bobbio.
• Clues suggests it is a translation of a Greek original written
anywhere from 170 to the 4th century. Latin is very poorly
written.
• 1st and 2nd books are missing, but it starts with Luke named the
third book, so it is assumed the 1st two are Matthew and Mark.
• Accepts the Apocalypse of Peter.
• Omits Hebrews, James, 1 & 2 Peter, and 3 John.
• http://www.ntcanon.org/Muratorian_Canon.shtml
Codex Sinaiticus
• Oldest (4th Century) collection of
27 books of NT plus Shepherd of
Hermes and The Epistle of
Barnabas. These two books are at
the end but are not indicated as
being inferior to the other 27
books.
• Discovered 1859 at foot of
Monastery of St. Catherine at the
foot of Mt. Sinai in Palestine.
• Some of the OT is missing.
An opening from one of the two
bound volumes at The British Library.
Letter of Athanaeus
• Athanasius was the Bishop of Alexandria.
• Chief defender of Christian orthodoxy against
Arianism.
• Attended the Council of Nicea.
• His 39th Festival Letter in 367 CE contains the
first list of our current 27 books of the NT.
• Permits some apocryphal OT books, the Didache, and
the Shepherd of Hermes to be read, but these are not
to be considered canonical.
• All other books are not permitted to be read at all.
• This important downgrade of apocryphal literature
would lead to its being almost completely removed
from Christian literature.
Athanasius'
Shrine (where a
portion of his
relics are
preserved) under
St. Mark's
Cathedral, Cairo
Peshitta
• Peshitta is the Bible of the Syrian Church,
written in Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic.
• It replaced the Diatessaron, a single book
that tried to harmonize the 4 gospels. This
book was written by Tatian, a convert of
Justin Martyr, and became the official
gospel of the Syrian Church.
• Syrian Bishop Theodoret suspected Tatian
of being a heretic. He ordered the
Diatessaron replaced by the 4 gospels. The
Syrian translation still contains verses from
the Diatessaron.
Peshitta
• Peshitta means “simple translation”.
• The Peshitta contains 22 books of NT,
omitting 2 Peter, 2 & 3 John, Jude and
Revelation.
• “The Peshitta is the only authentic and
pure text which contains the books in
the New Testament that were written in
Aramaic, the Language of Mshikha (the
Messiah) and His Disciples.” –
peshitta.org
Latin Vulgate
• Latin Bible translated from Hebrew & Greek mostly by
Jerome.
• Completed 382 – 405 CE. Used by the Catholic Church
for more than 1000 years.
• Contains the 27 books of the current NT.
• However, the Epistle to the Laodiceans also appears
in 100 manuscripts. There is no evidence of a Greek
version of the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
• Bishop Lightfoot, 1890: “for more than nine centuries
this forged epistle hovered about the doors of the
sacred Canon, without either finding admission or
being peremptorily excluded. “
Criteria For The Canon
Criteria
• Apostolicity – Books believed to be written by an apostle
or a companion of an apostle were accepted.
• Orthodoxy – Books had to support proto-orthodox
doctrines.
• Antiquity – “Useful” and “Correct” scripture were
eliminated if they were known to be written too recently.
• Catholicity – Books that were widely accepted throughout
the empire were accepted. Local books were rejected.
Rejecting The Gospel of Peter
• Eusebius recorded this story regarding the Gospel of Peter.
• Serapion, Bishop of Antioch, visited Rhossus and learned of
disputes regarding the Gospel of Peter.
• At first he reasoned that if Peter wrote it, the scripture was
acceptable.
• Serapion later obtained and read a copy.
• Most was acceptable, but a few passages could be interpreted
in favor of Gnostic doecetism (no suffering, Jesus not human).
• Serapion claimed that because of its content, this book could
not have been written by Peter. It was no longer acceptable.
Gospel of Peter
Pottery Shard from
the 6th or 7th century
depicting the
“evangelist Peter”
and urging readers to
revere his Gospel.
Rejecting The Shepherd of Hermas
• Very popular in the 2nd to 4th century church.
• Included in the Codex Sinaiticus of the 4th century,
the oldest set of 27 NT books.
• Longer than any book that made it into the NT.
• Considered canonical by many church fathers.
• Paul salutes a Hermas in Romans 16:14.
• References “Clement”, possible 1st Bishop/Pope.
• Three ancient witnesses claim it was written by
brother of Pope Pius I not earlier than 140 CE.
• Rejected for primarily being too recent and also
not having direct apostolic connections.
The Shepherd of Hermas
3rd Century
Catacombs of Rome
Formalizing the Selection
at Synods (Councils)
Synods
• Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa in 393 CE was the first
Synod to approve the current 27 book NT. It’s record is lost,
only known by the reading of its meeting at Carthage 4 years
later. Hebrews is not considered a letter of Paul. It also adds
“On the anniversaries of martyrs, their acts shall also be read.”
• The OT corresponds to the Catholic canon and falls short of the
Eastern Orthodox canon.
• Synod of Carthage in Africa in 397 CE is the oldest Synod of
which we have records that lists the NT canon to 27 books. It
affirmed the cannon from the Synod of Hippo. Hebrews is
considered a letter of Paul.
Protestants Force
Another Look
Martin Luther Removes OT Books
• Jewish leaders had there own synods which developed into
today’s approved Masoretic Text (MT). This included the
Council of Jamnia (Yavne) in 70-90 CE and other synods.
• Martin Luther did not like some Catholic doctrines, many of
which were supported by verses in Maccabees.
• He got rid of Maccabees by rejecting books in the LXX that
were not in the MT in his bible.
• He published the NT in 1522 and the OT in 1534.
• Luther also did not believe in the authority of NT books
Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelation.
Catholic Empire Strikes Back
• The Catholic Church responded by approving the
Deuterocanonical books in 1546. These books are now
considered equal in authority to all previously canonized books.
• The vote was 24 yes, 15, no, and 16 abstaining. Only 44% of
those present approved this important decision! It is now
officially heretical to question the authority of these books!
• Books in Deuterocanon include Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach,
Baruch, 1 & 2 Maccabees and additions to Daniel & Esther.
• Some Catholics: these books were always equal to OT books.
• Some protestants: these books were never sacred.
• Reality: these books were considered sacred but of lesser
stature than other books of the OT.
The End of The Apocrypha
• Protestants started putting these books in an apocryphal
(doubtful) section, as the 1611 King James Version (KJV) did.
• For over 250 years, the Apocrypha was an official section of all
protestant bibles.
• Protestants have now removed the apocryphal books
completely, as the official 1895 KJV did.
• Today’s KJV is more recent than The Origin of Species!
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament
http://www.coptic.org/language/bible/bible.htm
http://www.peshitta.org/initial/peshitta.html
http://www.ethiopianorthodox.org/english/canonical/books.html
Old Testament of Major Sects
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
New Testament of Major Sects
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
The Coptic Bible
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
Ethiopian Bible
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
Christian Canons Today
Outline of this Study
• Early Versions of Christianity
• Development of Orthodox Christianity
• Development of Christian Canons
• Editing the Books of the Canons
• Books No Longer in the Canon(s)
• Selecting Books for the Canons
• Development of Anti-Judaism in Christianity (next week)
• Non-Canonical Books and Myths referenced in the NT (next week)
• Important Contradictions in the NT and OT (next week)
Books Used In This Study
• Lost Christianities, Bart Ehrman
• Misquoting Jesus, Bart Ehrman
• Jesus Interrupted, Bart Ehrman
• http://www.ntcanon.org/table.shtml
• http://www.ntcanon.org/authorities.shtml, Richard Carrier
• Black and White pictures from Ehrman with permission
• Other images from Wikipedia and other public websites
• Best image of tree of Christian sects from Concordia
University website.
• Map of early Christian sects from University of California.