A.P. Biology
Review of Semester I 2009-2010
Semester Exam December 16th at 8:30am
Heredity and Evolution (including Molecular Genetics, Heredity, and Evolutionary Biology)
Chap 22 Descent with Modification
Charles Darwin
Natural Selection
Genetic variation / Natural variation
Mutation
Differential survival
Fitness / Fit
Darwinian Evolution
Lamarck
Acquired characteristics
Artificial selection
Homologous structures
Common ancestry
Analogous structures
Adaptation
Chapter 16 Structure of DNA
Evidence that DNA is the genetic material
Structure of a DNA strand
Purines and Pyrimidines
Base pairing rules
Semi-conservative model
DNA replication
Origins of replication and replication fork
Leading and Lagging strand
DNA polymerase III; DNA ligase; primers; primase; Okazaki fragments; helicase; topoisomerase; single-strand binding
protein; DNA polymerase I
Proofreading and Repairing DNA
Telomere/Telomerase
Chapter 17 Protein Synthesis
One Gene-One Polypeptide hypothesis (why is this not completely accurate)
What is a gene?
Transcription
Translation
Codons: Triplets of bases
Template strand/Sense strand
Universal Code
Reading frame
mRNA and 5’ cap with poly-A tail
Introns and exons
RNA processing
Spliceosome/snRNPs
Alternative RNA splicing = same gene but different protein products
Structure of the ribosome/rRNA
tRNA/anticodon/amino acides
Mutations/Base-pair mutations /Point/Insertions/Deletions/Frameshift Beneficial/harmful/detrimental/neutral
mutations
Chap 19 Eukaryotic Genomes (only pages 361, 374-381)
Nucleosome
Histone
Reverse transcriptase
cDNA
transposons
Gene families
Multi-gene families
Repetitive DNA
Pseudogenes
Chapter 12/13 Mitosis and Meiosis (note that I assume you know Chap 12)
Organization of genetic material (chromatin, chromosomes, chromatids, homologous chromosomes)
Cell cycle – G1, S, G2, Interphase
Phases of Mitosis
Genes that regulate cell cycle, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, repair genes
Cancer cells that lose control of cycle
Gametes (haploid cells)= sperm, egg, pollen grain
Sex chromosomes and autosomes
Diploid 2n; Haploid n
Mitosis conserves chromosome number whereas meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half
Stages of Meiosis
Reduction steps = Separation of homologous chromosomes AND sister chromatids segregating away from each other
Producing genetic variation in meiosis = Crossing over and independent assortment
Chapter 14 Mendel
Use of qualitative traits
True breeding lines
Hybridization of pea plants to produce large numbers of offspring
P generation, F1 generation, F2 generation
Law of segregation = the two alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes
(Anaphase II)
Alleles = variations of a gene
Phenotype vs Genotype
Laws of Probability such as multiplying with an “AND” statement and adding with an “OR” statement
Epistasis
Pleiotropy
Polylgenic Inheritance controlling quantitative traits
Recessively inherited disorders such as Cystic Fibrosis and Sickle-cell Disease and Huntington’s Disease
Genetic Carriers (Aa)
Amniocentesis and Karyotypes as forms of prenatal testing
Chapter 15 Chromosomes
Gene linkage causes traits to have unique patterns of inheritance other than Mendelian genetics
Recombinant phenotypes vs Parental phenotypes to determine recombination frequency
Recombination frequency and centiMorgans (cM)
Gene order on a chromosome
Sex-linked traits exhibit unique patterns of inheritance
Chi-square as a statistical test to determine the significance of observed numbers varying from expected numbers
Nondisjunction
Diploid (2n), triploid (3n), tetraploids (4n) (polyploids) vs. monosomy (2n-1), trisomy (2n+1) (aneuploids)
Deletions, duplications, translocations, inversions
Cytoplasmic inheritance / Extranuclear genes (mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and chloroplast DNA (cpDNA)) – maternally
inherited
Human disorders due to chromosomal alterations (Trisomy 21, XXY Klinefelter syndrome, Trisomy X, Monosomy X
Turner syndrome, Cri du Chat Syndrome)
Chapter 23 Evolution of Populations
Modern synthesis
Hardy Weinberg
Mutation
Migration
Selection
Genetic drift
Random mating
Population size
Gene frequencies / Allele frequencies
Genotype frequencies
Gene pool
Chapter 24 Origin of Species
Micro vs. Macroevolution
Biological species concept
Morphological species concept
Reproductive Isolation – the barriers to isolation on pg 474 – 475 are well summarized
Polyploidy as a means to speciation
Adaptive radiation (haven’t discussed this)
Punctuated equilibrium (haven’t discussed this)
Chap 25 Phylogeny
Hierarchical classification (Domain  species)
The idea of a common ancestor in a phylogeny
Reading a phylogeny
Creating a phylogeny using morphological traits/DNA/amino acid sequence/etc
Using homologous traits to build a tree (not analogous traits)
Chap 26 Tree of Life
RNA in early world of life on Earth
Ribozymes
RNAi (368-369)
Endosymbiosis Origin of Eukaryotes
Three Domains
Chapter 18 Genetics of Virus and Bacteria (skip p. 345; 352-356)
Viral genome (dsDNA, ssDNA, dsRNA, ssRNA)
Reverse transcriptase/retroviruses
Protein coat/Capsid
Membranous envelope/Viral envelope
Bacteriophage/phage (made up of the head, tail, fibers)
Lytic cycle – attachment/entry/synthesis/assembly/release
Lysogenic cycle – integrates into host DNA
Bacterial genome (circular)
Binary fission – asexual
Importance of mutations in asexual systems
Conjugation – sexual
Plasmid – self replicating
Antibiotic resistance genes on plasmids (R genes)
Horizontal gene transfer
Vertical gene transfer
Chapter 20 DNA Technology / Genomics
Recombinant DNA
Clone vs. gene clone
How to clone a gene into a plasmid
Restriction enzyme
Restriction fragments
Sticky ends
DNA ligase
Vector
Primer
Probe (used as a primer)
Oligonucleotide (short DNA sequence used as a primer)
Genomic library
cDNA
PCR
How to do PCR
Electrophoresis
How to sort pieces of DNA by size
RFLPs
Use of hypervariable regions to fingerprint organisms
DNA sequencing
Genomics
DNA microarray assays
Molecules and Cells (including Chemistry of Life, Cells)
Chapter 3 Water
Polar molecules
Hydrogen bonds
Water shape and properties
Cohesion/Adhesion/High specific Heat/heat of vaporization/evaporative cooling
Water as solvent of life
Relate structure of water to function
Acids/Bases/Buffers
pH scale
Chapter 36 Transpiration
Water potential
Plasmolyze
Plasmodesma
Symplastic vs apoplastic route through root cells
Xylem
Phloem
Stoma/Guard cells
Structural adaptations that reduce transpiration
Chapter 5 Macromolecules
Building blocks of life
Condensation reactions (dehydration reactions) to build polymers
Hydrolysis reactions to break down polymers
Carbohydrates
mono-, di-, polysaccharide, starch, glycogen, cellulose
one to one ratio of –H to -OH groups
relate structure to function
Fats/Lipids
Saturated vs unsaturated
Structure of Triglyceride
Structure of phospholipid
Steroids
Relate structure to function
Proteins
Enzymes/catalysts
Monomers are the 20 amino acids
Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structure and function
Nucleic acids
5 nitrogenous bases (C, T, U, A, G)
Double helix that can bind and denature to allow for replication
Chapter 41 Animal Nutrition
Essential amino acids
Vitamins and Minerals (coenzymes / cofactors)
Organs of the complete digestive tract
Epiglottis and glottis
Zymogens (like pepsinogen)
Enzymes of carbohydrate, protein, fat digestion
Villi and microvilli
Stomach and intestinal adaptations of various animals
Ruminants
Chapter 6 Cell
Prokaryote vs eukaryote
Surface to volume ratios of a cell
Components of a cell
Endomembrane system (ER and Golgi body)
Mitochondria and chloroplast
Cytoskeleton
microtubules and Microfilaments
centrosomes and centrioles
cilia and flagella
Intercellular Junctions
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions
Plasmodesmata
Chapter 7 Membranes
Fluid Mosaic model
Structure of phosphlipid
Cholesterol as component to reduce membrane fluidity
Rafts as clusters of cholesterol to support proteins
Glycoproteins – specific cell markers
Integral proteins that work as
Transport
Enzymes
Signal Transduction
Cell to cell recognition
Intercellular joining (gap junctions or tight junctions)
Plasma membranes have a distinct cytoplasmic and extracellular side formed by proteins in a vesicle
Permeability
Diffusion / Osmosis (specific for H2O)
Tonicity – turgid cells, lysed cells, flaccid cells, plasmolyzed cells, shriveled cells
Facilitated diffusion – ion channels, gated channels, transport proteins,
Active transport – use of ATP
Electrochemical gradient vs concentration gradient
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Chapter 11 Cell Communication
Hormones and long distance signaling
Reception, Transduction, and Response
Types of receptors in plasma membrane (G-protein-linked receptors / ion channel receptors)
Signal transduction pathways
Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation (protein kinase usually transfers P from ATP to protein)
2nd messengers (cAMP, cGMP, or Ca++)
Signal amplification
Examples of Free Response Questions (3 of the below will be on your test; you will need to choose 2 out of 3 to answer)
1. Describe how a plasmid can be genetically modified to include a piece of foreign DNA that alters the phenotype of
bacterial cells transformed with the modified plasmid. Describe a procedure to determine which bacterial cells have
been successfully transformed.
2. A major distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the presence of membrane-bound organelles in
eukaryotes.
a. Describe the structure and function of TWO eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles other than the nucleus.
b. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have some non-membrane-bound components in common. Describe the
function of TWO of the following and discuss how each differs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
i. DNA
ii. Cell Wall
iii. Ribosomes
c. Explain the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells and discuss an example of evidence
supporting this theory.
3. A molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA) has just been synthesized in the nucleus of a human cell.
a. What types of modifications may occur to this RNA before it leaves the nucleus?
b. Once in the cytoplasm, how is the mRNA translated to a protein?
c. If the cell is a secretory cell, how is the protein from part b eventually targeted, packaged, and secreted to
the exterior of the cell?
4. The physical structure of a protein often reflects and affects its function
a. Describe three types of chemical bonds/interactions found in proteins. For each type, describe its role in
determining protein structure.
b. Discuss how the structure of a protein affects the function of two of the following.
i. Cell signaling
ii. Regulation of enzyme activity
iii. Integration in a plasma membrane
c. Abnormal hemoglobin is the identifying characteristic of sickle cell anemia. Explain the genetic basis of the
abnormal hemoglobin. Explain why the sickle cell allele is selected for in certain areas of the world.
5. The movement of water through vascular plants is important to their survival.
a. Explain the mechanism of water movement through vascular plants during transpiration. Include a
discussion of how the anatomy of vascular plants and the properties of water contribute to this process.
b. Explain how gas exchange affects transpiration.
c. Describe TWO adaptations that affect the rate of transpiration in desert plants.
6. Darwin is considered the “father of evolutionary biology.” Four of his contributions to the field of evolutionary
biology are listed below.
 The nonconstancy of species
 Branching evolution, which implies the common descent of all species
 Occurrence of gradual changes in species
 Natural selection as the mechanism for evolution
a. For each of the four contributions listed above, discuss one example of supporting evidence
b. Darwin’s ideas have been enhanced and modified as new knowledge and technologies have become
available. Discuss how TWO of the following have modified biologists’ interpretation of Darwin’s original
contributions.
i. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
ii. Punctuated equilibrium
iii. Genetic engineering