Chapter 5
Introduction to Psychology
This is our
culture
today.
What can
we do?
 the period of time in your life after your physical
growth has stopped and you are fully developed
 the state (and responsibilities) of a person who has
attained maturity
The adolescence and adult stages are as follows (the
ages for each stage are very approximate):
Stage 5. Adolescence (13–19 years): avoid role
confusion and develop a sense of identity; social
focus is on peer groups
Stage 6. Early adulthood (20–30 years): most adults
commit themselves to a love relationship and to
intimacy; other adults develop a sense of isolation;
social focus in this stage is on friendships
Stage 7. Middle adulthood (30–60
years most adults commit
themselves to productive and
socially valuable work (including
bringing up their own children and
being concerned with others within
society), or they become stagnant
and self-centered
Erikson described these two extremes
as generativity and stagnation.
Generativity refers to “the interest in
establishing and guiding the next
generation.” The social focus is on
the household.
 Stage 8. Old age (60 years onwards): Adults in this
stage try to make sense of their lives. If they are
successful in doing so, they gain wisdom; if they
cannot do this, then they experience despair. The
social focus is on humankind.
 developing the ability to share intimacy, seeking to




form relationships and find intimate love.
Career Choices
Marriage/Children
Successful marriage =how people handle the good
times and how they handle the bad times
Children (married couples) – 2.3 as of 2008 (US
Census Bureau)
 Roughly 60% of those who marry a first time will
divorce in the United States.
 Those who marry a second time are divorcing at a 75%
rate.
 Divorce is especially likely during the first five years of
marriage, and other “danger periods” are after 15 and
25 years of marriage.
 Divorce is the second most stressful life event after
death of one’s spouse.
It has been argued that those getting divorced tend to go
through a series of stages during the divorce process.
For example, Bohannon (1970) proposed the following
six stages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Emotional divorce
Legal divorce
Economic divorce
Co-parental divorce
Community divorce
Psychic divorce
 Such alternatives to marriage as “living together”
(cohabitation) have become more common. In 1997,
the Census Bureau estimated that 4.13 million unwed
couples lived in the United States.
 socioeconomic status
 Friends
 political values
 residence location
 child care
 job stress
 other aspects of life
 And while income is important in both career selection and
career longevity, so are achievement, recognition,
satisfaction, security, and challenge.
 Adulthood is either a time of fulfilling one’s dreams or
a time to realize that what was dreamed cannot be
fulfilled—the frustrations of this can lead to despair.
 One theory—our cells break down and cannot repair




themselves.
Another theory—our cells are “biological clocks” that
can only divide and multiply so many times.
Peak physical condition 18-30
Changes in sight are very noticeable
Hearing is not as good—especially when more than
two people are talking.
 Robert Havighurst lists seven major tasks in the middle
years:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
accepting and adjusting to physiological changes, such as
menopause
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in one's
occupation
adjusting to and possibly caring for aging parents
helping teenage children to become responsible adults
achieving adult social and civic responsibility
relating to one's spouse as a person
developing leisure-time activities
 Staying away from bad stuff keeps up looking younger
longer.
 No tobacco, drugs, booze, and a sensible well-balanced
diet along with a moderate exercise regimen are also
very good.
 The three most common causes for death—heart
disease, cancer, cirrhosis may all be a result of the
living we do as younger people.
 Lesser causes are drug abuse, and death due to
accidents—both more prevalent in younger ages.
 Between the ages of 45-50, a woman
stops ovulating and menstruating so
she cannot bear any more children.
 Negativity associated with menopause
is merely the effect of stereotyping and
have no physical basis.
 Men have no counterpart to
menopause—men have fathered
children well into their 80s (Aaron
Burr).
 Reproduction After Menopause -With help of
technology, women can now conceive and carry a baby
to term after menopause. (Very Rare)
 The age of the mother is a controversial issue, while
the age of the father is not.

A 66 year old woman by the name of Maria del
Carmen Bousada from Spain who suddenly
decided she wanted to have a baby

Came to the United States, lied about her age,
told the doctors that she was 55 and had an invitro fertilization procedure performed.

The procedure was successful and resulted in the
birth of twins (boys), giving her the record for
being the oldest woman to give birth.

The procedure cost over $59,000 not including
the cost of preparation, travel, and all other
medical expenses.

She passed away at age 69 of cancer, which may
be related to the influx of hormones given to her
when she was trying to conceive.
http://208.111.134.1/video/playlist/
5895/1022548?cpt=8&title=health
&wpid=0
 It is thought that sex drive may only diminish if one is
bored with a partner, is in poor physical condition, is
extremely ill, or accepts that age kills everything.
 Sexual Functioning
 Sexual effectiveness need not disappear as humans
age.
 Healthy men and women often function sexually into
their 80s.
 Although time takes its toll, it need not eliminate
sexual desire nor bar its fulfillment.
 Levinson’s Theory of Male Development
 Levinson’s sample:
 Levinson interviewed 40 men in four occupational
groups (novelists, biologists, business executives, and
factory workers) between the ages of 35-45. Five percent
were black. All had been married at least once.
 Move from pre-adulthood to adulthood
 Graduation from school, move out of family home, go to work.
 Independence from family. Financial and emotional autonomy.
 College and military are transitional institutions – away from family
but not total independence.
 Make choices about how adult life will be lived
 Men have a “dream,” a vision of the future usually viewed in
terms of career
 Men have a “mentor,” an older (8-15 years) role model – someone
with experience and seniority in the world the young adult
wishes to enter.
 Second important relationship – a woman who supports dream,
makes man feel capable of obtaining it.
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.
Entering the Adult World
The Age-Thirty Crisis
Settling Down/ BOOM period
The Midlife Transition
Middle Adulthood
 The mentor - Women substantially less likely to have a
mentor
 Love relationship – Men seek women to support their
dreams. Women seek a “special man” but see themselves
as supporting his dreams.
 Men dream of occupational achievement, status
accomplishment. Women – less clear dreams; more
tentative mix of family and career interests
 Women are a bit different at the midlife stage especially as
many are going back to college or going back to work.
 When the last child has left home
the women may suffer from
depression especially if her
marriage is not so good.
Otherwise, they may be at their
happiest with the new-found
freedom.
 Most common in middle aged women; menopause can
lead to depression as mothers now sense that their role
in the life cycle is over.
 While a midlife crisis is not regarded as a universal
phenomenon, during one's 40s and 50s comes the
recognition that more than half of one's life is gone.
 That recognition may prompt some to feel that the
clock is ticking and that they must make sudden,
drastic changes in order to achieve their goals, while
others focus on finding satisfaction with the present
course of their lives.
Life Expectancy

Life expectancy of
Americans now at least
76 years
 Middle of life falls
statistically at age 38
years.
 Middle age typically
defined as considerably
later.
Late Adulthood

Old age is generally considered to begin
at about age 65.

Erik Erikson suggests that at this time it
is important to find meaning and
satisfaction in life rather than to become
bitter and disillusioned, that is, to resolve
the conflict of integrity vs. despair.

It has been estimated that by the year
2030, Americans over 65 will make up 20%
of the population.

Despite the problems associated with
longevity, studies of people in their 70s
have shown that growing old is not
necessarily synonymous with substantial
mental or physical deterioration. Many
older people are happy and engaged in a
variety of activities.
Gerontology

an interdisciplinary field that studies the
process of aging and the aging
population, involves psychology, biology,
sociology, and other fields
What are the improvements needed in the
area of gerontology?






Experts & researchers need to communicate & collaborate across
disciplines, as well as use a uniform common language to enhance
communication.
Nurses need to analyze & reduce the complexity of these theories
and place emphasis on the quality of life of older adults.
Society must develop a positive view of older adults & their
potential within society.
Nurses must see older adults as unique individuals with valuable
life experiences & recollections that should be utilized.
Also recognize the losses experienced i.e. physical & social.
Society must change or eliminate stereotypes about older adults.
• What is a common fear in our society?
▫ The fear of dying is very prevalent.
• Society’s View of Aging:
▫ We treat aging negatively in jokes, in advertisements
to replace old products with newer ones, in retiring
older workers and replacing them with younger ones,
and by using the euphemisms for the word old.
Development in Late Adulthood
Theories of successful aging.
1. Disengagement theory
2. Activity theory
Disengagement theory
•
Refers to an inevitable process in which many of the relationships between a person and other
members of society are severed & those remaining are altered in quality.
•
Withdrawal may be initiated by the aging person or by society, and may be partial or total.
•
It was observed that older people are less involved with life than they were as younger adults.
•
As people age they experience greater distance from society & they develop new types of
relationships with society.
•
In America, there is evidence that society forces withdrawal on older people whether or not they
want it.
•
This theory is recognized as the 1st formal theory that attempted to explain the process of growing
older.
Activity theory
• Is another theory that describes the psychosocial aging process.
• Activity theory emphasizes the importance of ongoing social activity.
• This theory suggests that a person's self-concept is related to the roles held by that
person i.e. retiring may not be so harmful if the person actively maintains other roles,
such as familial roles, recreational roles, volunteer & community roles.
• To maintain a positive sense of self the person must substitute new roles for those
that are lost because of age. And studies show that the type of activity does matter,
just as it does with younger people.
Ageism
• Ageism may be defined as the prejudice or discrimination
that occurs on the basis of age.
• Although it can be used against people of all ages, older
people are most frequently its target and it may often result in
forced retirement.
• Stereotyping of the elderly is also an aspect of ageism, as seen
in such a statement as “He drives like a little old lady.”
Physical Changes
• atrophy of the brain and a decrease in the rate of
neural processes
• Respiratory and circulatory
• Bone mass /osteoporosis.
• Muscles
• Skin
• Hair loss
• decreased sensitivity in all of the sensory
modalities, including olfaction, taste, touch,
hearing, and vision
Cognitive Changes
Cognitive changes. The study of cognitive
changes in the older population is complex.
John Horn proposed two types of intelligence:
fluid and crystallized.
• Intellectual changes in late adulthood
do not always result in reduction of ability.
• While fluid intelligence (the ability to
see and to use patterns and relationships to
solve problems) does decline in later years,
crystallized intelligence (the ability to
use accumulated information to solve
problems and make decisions) has been
shown to rise slightly over the entire life
span.
Dementia
• Dementias are usually responsible for cognitive defects
seen in older people. These disorders, however, occur
only in about 15% of people over 65.
• The leading cause of dementia in the United States is
Alzheimer's disease, a progressive, eventually fatal
disease that begins with confusion and memory lapses
and ends with the loss of ability to care for oneself.
• http://www.hbo.com/alzheimers/memory-losstapes.html
• Retirement. Retirement at age 65 is the
conventional choice for many people, although some
work until much later.
• Widowhood. Women tend to marry men older
than they are and, on average, live 5 to 7 years
longer than men. One study found ten times as
many widows as widowers. Widowhood is
particularly stressful if the death of the spouse
occurs early in life; close support of friends,
particularly other widows, can be very helpful.
Psychology- Video on Demand
• http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?
pid=1515
Thanatology: The Study of Death and Dying
 During the past thirty years social patterns that call
for the "hiding of death" have in large measure been
reversed and the field of thanatology—the study of
death—has grown.
Right to Die Movement
 The death awareness movement asserts that a basic
human right is the power to control one's own dying
process.
 Much criticism is currently leveled at the way
modern technology is applied to the terminally ill.
 According to this view, too much is done for too long
a period at too high a cost, all at the expense of basic
human considerations and sensitivities.
 Probably the most controversial position of the
right-to-die movement concerns the issue of
euthanasia.
Controversial Issues
• Terri Schiavo casehttp://www.bing.com/videos/watch/video/terri
-schiavo-dies/6lboew0
• Dr. Jack Kevorkianhttp://www.bing.com/videos/watch/video/kevo
rkian-speaks-out/60m36w8
The Hospice Movement
 The hospice approach entails a variety of programs that
are designed to afford an alternative to conventional
hospital care for the terminally ill, especially cancer
patients.
 The emphasis of the movement falls on "comfort-care."
 Most hospice programs are centered around care of the
dying person at home.
The Dying Process
▫ Defining Death
 A growing acceptance in medical and legal circles of
the need for an additional criterion of death has
resulted in a legal definition that includes the
absence of spontaneous brain function.
Confronting One's Own Death
1. A realistic acceptance of death may well be the
hallmark of emotional maturity.
2. People differ considerably, however, in the degree to
which they are consciously aware of and think about
death.
3. Death is a highly personal matter, and its meaning
tends to vary from individual to individual.
4. Some psychologists have suggested that the elderly
tend to take stock of their lives, to reflect and to
reminisce about it in a life review process.
5. Researchers agree that only a relatively small
proportion of the elderly express a fear of death.
Near-Death Experiences
1. Clinically dead but left their bodies and undergone
otherworldly experiences?
2. Scientific evidence of a spiritual existence beyond
death?
3. Skeptics rejoin that the visions reported by dying
people are hallucinations associated with the
intense arousal of the central nervous system and
the disorganization of normal brain functioning.
▫ Dying
 Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identifies five stages through
which dying persons typically pass: Denial, anger,
bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
Stages a Dying Person Experiences
•
•
•
•
•
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Causes of Death
 Most deaths occur in a hospital, clinic, or medical
center.
 A large number of deaths are attributed to
hypertension and the resulting cardiovascular
conditions.
 Cancer is the second leading cause of death.
 HIV rates are higher in states on the east coast and
west coast and in nearly every urban area of the
United States.
Grief, Bereavement, and Mourning
▫ Adjusting to the Death of a Loved One
 Bereavement- mourning period (cultural)
 Grief- response to loss
 Mourning- process/time people adapt
(cultural)
▫ Widows and Widowers
 Women 65 and over are much more likely to be
widowed than married.
 The difficulty women have in adjusting to
widowhood tends to vary with the degree to which
their social relationships revolved around or were
integrated with those of their husbands.
The Death of a Child
 The loss of a child is frequently associated with
depression, anger, guilt and despair.
 Recovery can take a very long time.
 Guilt can be especially intense after a death from
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
 Parents who have lost a child by miscarriage often
receive no recognition of their loss from others, yet
their grief work might continue for a lifetime.
SIDS
• Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the
unexpected, sudden death of a child under age 1
in which an autopsy does not show an
explainable cause of death.
• Symptoms
• There are no symptoms. Babies who die of SIDS
do not appear to suffer or struggle.
• The cause of SIDS is unknown, although there are several
theories. Many doctors and researchers now believe that SIDS
is not a single condition that is always caused by the same
medical problems, but infant death caused by several different
factors.
• These factors may include problems with sleep arousal or an
inability to sense a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Almost all SIDS deaths occur without any warning or
symptoms when the infant is thought to be sleeping.
• SIDS is most likely to occur between 2 and 4 months of age,
and 90% occur by 6 months of age. It occurs more often in
winter months, with the peak in January. There is also a
greater rate of SIDS among Native and African Americans.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The following factors increase the risk of SIDS:
Babies who sleep on their stomachs
Babies who sleep in the same bed as their parents
Babies who have soft bedding in the crib
Multiple birth babies
Premature babies
Babies with a sibling who had SIDS
Mothers who smoke or use illegal drugs
Teen mothers
Short time period between pregnancies
Late or no prenatal care
Situations of poverty
SIDS affects boys more often than girls. While studies show that babies with
the above risk factors are more likely to be affected, the impact or
importance of each factor is not well-defined or understood.
Human Diversity: Cross-Cultural
Perspectives on Death

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



In some societies, one is required to deal with death during
one's entire lifetime.
For all cultures, death is a transition from one stage to
another.
Provides examples of different cultures and how they handle
death in different ways
In India, death is not considered a taboo subject, while
Muslims tend not to discuss it openly.
Some cultures look at death as the end of life.
Some cultures look at death as the beginning of a new life.
Development in Early & Middle Adulthood. 29 Nov 2009
<http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic
/topicArticleId-25438,articleId-25385.html>.
Kasschau, Richard A. (2003). Understanding Psychology. New
York: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.
Psychology Press. Adolescence, Adulthood, and Old Age. 29
Nov 2009. < http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:DaEjePSZRgJ:www.psypress.com/pip/resources/chapters/P
IP_adolescence.pdf+adulthood+and+old+age&cd=1&hl=en
&ct=clnk&gl=us>